Vegetius: EPITOMA REI MILITARIS LIBRI IIII

(XVIII. Nomina militum et gradus in scutis eorum aduersis scribenda.)
XIX. Praeter corporis robur notarum uel computandi artem in tironibus
eligendem.

(18. The names of the soldiers and their grades are to be written on the fronts of their shields.)
19. Besides robustness of body, the art of notes (shorthand) or of computing in recruits
is to be chosen.

XX. Donatiui partem dimidiam debent apud signa milites sequestrare seruandam ipsis.
XXI. In legione ita fieri promotiones, ut per omnes cohortes transeant qui promouentur.

XX. Soldiers ought to sequester half of the donative at the standards, to be kept for themselves.
XXI. In the legion promotions are to be made in such a way that those who are promoted pass through all the cohorts.

XXII. Quid inter tubicines et cornicines et classicum intersit. XXIII.

22. What difference there is between trumpeters and horn-blowers and the classicum. 23.

De exercitatione militum.
XXIIII. Exempla adhortationum exercitii militaris de aliis artibus tracta.

On the training of soldiers.
24. Examples of exhortations for military exercise drawn from other arts.

XXV. Enumeratio ferramentorum uel machinarum legionis.

25. Enumeration of the tools or machines of the legion.

Instituta maiorum partis armatae plenissime clementiam uestram peritissimeque retinere continuis declaratur uictoribus ac triumphis, siquidem indubitata adprobatio artis sit rerum semper effectus. Verum tranquillitas tua, imperator inuicte, altiori consilio, quam mens poterat terrena concipere, ex libris antiqua desiderat, cum ipsiam antiquitatem factis recentibus antecedat. Igitur cum haec litteris breuiter conprehendere maiestati uestrae non tam discenda quam recognoscenda praeciperer, certauit saepius deuotio cum pudore.

The institutes of the ancestors of the armed service your Clemency most fully and most skillfully
is declared to retain by continual victories and triumphs, since the indubitable
approbation of the art is ever the effect of deeds accomplished. But your Tranquillity, unconquered emperor,
with a higher counsel than an earthly mind could conceive, seeks from books
things ancient, although it surpasses that very antiquity by recent deeds. Therefore,
when I was instructed to comprehend these things briefly in writing for Your Majesty, not so much to be learned
as to be recognized, my devotion has often contended with my modesty.

Quid enim audacius, quam domino ac principi generis humani, domitori omnium gentium barbararum, aliquid de usu ac disciplina insinuare bellorum, nisi forte iussisset fieri, quod ipse gessisset? et rursum tanti imperatoris non oboedire mandatis plenum sacrilegii uidebatur atque periculi. Miro itaque more in parendo audax factus sum, dum metuo uideri audacior, si negassem.

For what is more audacious than to insinuate something about the use and discipline of wars to the lord and prince of the human race, the subduer of all barbarian nations, unless perhaps he had ordered to be done what he himself had performed?
and again, not to obey the mandates of so great an emperor seemed full of sacrilege and danger.
Therefore, in a wondrous manner I became bold in obeying, while I feared to seem more audacious, if I had refused.

Ad quam temeritatem praecedens me indulgentia uestrae perennitatis anaimauit. Nam libellum de dilectu atque exercitatione tironum dudum tamquam famulus obtuli; non tamen culpatus abscessi. Nec formido iussus adgredi opus, quod spontaneum cessit inpune.

To which
temerity the preceding indulgence of your Perpetuity has encouraged me. For
as a servant I formerly offered a little book on the levy and exercise of tyros (recruits);
yet I did not depart blamed. Nor do I fear, when ordered, to undertake the work which, being spontaneous,
passed with impunity.

I. Res igitur militaris(, sicut Latinorum egregius auctor carminis sui testatur exordio, armis constat et uiris. Haec) in tres diuiditur partes, equites pedes classem. Equitum alae dicuntur ab eo, quod ad similitudinem alarum ab utraque parte protegunt acies; quae nunc uexillationes uocantur a uelo, quia uelis, hoc est flammulis, utuntur.

1. Therefore the military art (, just as an eminent Latin author attests in the exordium of his song, consists of arms and men. This) is divided into three parts: cavalry, infantry, and the fleet. The wings of the cavalry are so called from the fact that, in the likeness of wings, they protect the battle-line on both sides; which now are called vexillations from velum, because they use vela, that is, streamers.

Est et aliud genus equitum, qui legionarii uocantur propterea, quod conexi sunt legioni; ad quorum exemplum ocreati sunt equites instituti. Classis item duo genera sunt, unum liburnarum, aliud lusoriarum. Equitibus campi, classibus maria uel flumina, peditibus colles urbes plana et abrupta seruantur.

There is also another kind of horsemen, who are called legionary because they are connected to a legion; after whose example the greaved horsemen were instituted. The fleet likewise is of two kinds: one of Liburnians, the other of lusoriae. For the horsemen the fields are reserved; for the fleets the seas or rivers; for the foot-soldiers, hills, cities, and level and precipitous ground are assigned.

Ex quo intellegitur magis reipublicae necessarios pedites, qui possunt ubique prodesse; et maior numerus militum (sumptu) expensa minore nutritur. Exercitus ex re ipsa atque opere exercitii nomen accepit, ut ei numquam liceret obliuisci quod uocabatur. Verum ipsi pedites in duas diuisi sunt partes, hoc est in auxilia et legiones.

From which it is understood that infantry are more necessary to the commonwealth,
who can be of use everywhere; and a greater number of soldiers is maintained with (expense) expenditure less.
The army received its name from the thing itself and from the work of exercising, so that it might never be allowed to forget what it was called.
But the infantry themselves are divided into two parts, that is, into the auxiliaries and the legions.

Sed auxilia a sociis uel foederatis gentibus mittebantur; Romana autem uirtus praecipue in legionum ordinatione praepollet. Legio autem ab eligendo appellata est, quod uocabulum eorum desiderat fidem atque diligentiam, qui milites probant. In auxiliis minor, in legionibus longe amplior consueuit militum numerus adscribi.

But auxiliaries were sent by allies or federate peoples; moreover, Roman virtue especially excels in the ordering of the legions. The legion, moreover, is so called from “choosing,” since the word demands the good faith and diligence of those who approve soldiers. In the auxiliaries a smaller, in the legions a far larger number of soldiers is accustomed to be enrolled.

II. Denique Macedones Graeci Dardani phalangas habuerunt, ut in una phalange armatorum VIII milia censerentur. Galli atque Celtiberi pluresque barbarae nationes cateruis utebantur in proelio, in quibus erant sena milia armatorum. Romani legiones habent, in quibus singulis sena milia, interdum amplius militare consuerunt.

2. Finally, the Macedonians, Greeks, and Dardanians had phalanxes, such that in one phalanx 8 thousand armed men were enrolled. The Gauls and Celtiberians and many barbarian nations used war-bands in battle, in which there were 6 thousand armed men apiece. The Romans have legions, in each of which 6 thousand, sometimes more, are accustomed to serve as soldiers.

Quid autem inter legiones et auxilia interesse uideatur, expediam. Auxiliares cum ducuntur ad proelium, ex diuersis locis, ex diuersis numeris uenientes, nec disciplina inter se nec notitia nec affectione consentiunt. Alia instituta, alius inter eos est usus armorum.

What seems to be the difference between legions and auxiliaries, I will set forth. The auxiliaries, when they are led to battle, coming from different places and different units, agree neither in discipline among themselves nor in acquaintance nor in affection. Their institutions are different, and among them there is a different use of arms.

Necesse est autem tardius ad uictoriam peruenire qui discrepant, antequam dimicent. Denique cum in expeditionibus plurimum prosit omnes milites unius praecepti significatione conuerti, non possunt aequaliter iussa conplere qui ante pariter non fuerunt. Tamen haec ipsa si sollemnibus diuersisque exercitiis prope cotidie roborentur, non mediocriter iuuant.

It is necessary however to arrive more slowly at victory, for those who are at variance, before they contend. Finally since on expeditions it is very profitable that all the soldiers be turned at the signification of a single precept, they cannot equally fulfill the orders who previously were not together in like manner. Nevertheless, if these very things were strengthened by solemn and diverse exercises almost daily, they help not moderately.

Nam legionibus semper auxilia tamquam leuis armatura in acie iungebantur, ut in his proeliandi magis adminiculum esset quam principale subsidium. Legio autem propriis cohortibus plena cum grauem armaturam, hoc est principes hastatos triarios antesignanos, item leuem armaturam, hoc est ferrentarios sagittarios funditores ballistarios, cum propios et sibi insitos equites legionarios isdem matriculis teneat, cum uno animo parique consensu castra muniat, aciem instruat, proelium gerat, ex omni parte perfecta, nullo extrinsecus indigens adiumento, quantamlibet hostium multitudinem superare consueuit. Documentum est magnitudo Romana, quae semper cum legionibus dimicans tantum hostium uicit, quantum uel ipsa uoluit uel rerum natura permisit.

For the legions there were always auxiliaries joined to the battle-line as the light armature, so that in them there was rather a help for fighting than a principal support. But a legion, full of its own cohorts, since it holds the heavy armature—that is, the principes, hastati, triarii, antesignani—likewise the light armature—that is, ferentarii, archers, slingers, ballistarii—together with its own legionary horse, proper and attached to itself, on the same muster-rolls, since with one spirit and equal consent it fortifies the camp, arrays the line, and conducts the battle, being perfect in every part, needing no extrinsic aid, is accustomed to overcome however great a multitude of enemies. Proof is the Roman greatness, which, always fighting with legions, conquered as many of the enemy as either it itself wished or as the nature of things permitted.

III. Legionum nomen in exercitu permanet hodieque, sed per neglegentiam superiorum temporum robur infractum est, cum uirtutis praemia occuparet ambitio et per gratiam promouerentur milites, qui promoueri consueuerunt per laborem. Deinde contubernalibus conpletis stipendiis per testimoniales ex more dimissis non sunt alii substituti.

3. The name of the legions remains in the army even today, but through the negligence of former times their strength has been broken, since ambition seized the rewards of virtue and soldiers were promoted by favor, who were accustomed to be promoted by labor. Then, when the contubernales, their stipends completed, were dismissed according to custom by testimonials, no others were substituted.

Praeterea necesse est aliquantos morbo debilitari atque dimitti, aliquantos deserere uel diuersis casibus interire; ac, nisi annis singulis, immo singulis paene mensibus in recedentium locum iuniorum turba succedat, quamuis copiosus exhauritur exercitus. Est et alia causa, cur adtenuatae sint legiones: magnus in illis labor est militandi, grauiora arma, plura munera, seuerior disciplina. Quod uitantes plerique in auxiliis festinant militiae sacramenta praecipere, ubi et minor sudor et maturiora sunt praemia.

Moreover, it is necessary that some be debilitated by disease and discharged, some desert, or perish by diverse casualties; and unless, every single year, nay almost every single month, in the place of those retiring there succeeds a throng of younger men, the army, however copious, is drained. There is also another cause why the legions have been attenuated: in them the labor of soldiering is great, the arms heavier, the duties more numerous, the discipline more severe. Avoiding this, the majority hasten in the auxiliaries to anticipate the military oaths, where both the sweat is less and the rewards more mature.

Cato ille Maior, cum et armis inuictis esset et consul exercitus saepe duxisset, plus se reipublicae credidit profuturum, si disciplinam militarem conferret in litteras. Nam unius aetatis sunt quae fortiter fiunt; quae uero pro utilitate reipublicae scribuntur aeterna sunt. Idem fecerunt alii conplures, sed praecipue Frontinus, diuo Traiano ab eiusmodi conprobatus industria.

That Cato the Elder, although he was unconquered in arms and, as consul, had often led armies, believed that he would be of more profit to the Republic if he should commit military discipline to letters. For the things that are done bravely belong to a single age; but the things that are written for the utility of the Republic are eternal. The same was done by several others, but especially by Frontinus, approved by the deified Trajan for industry of this kind.

Horum instituta, horum praecepta, in quantum ualeo, strictim fideliterque signabo. Nam cum easdem expensas faciat et diligenter et neglegenter exercitus ordinatus, non solum praesentibus, sed etiam futuris saeculis proficit, si prouisione maiestatis tuae, imperator Auguste, et fortissima dispositio reparetur armorum et emendetur dissimulatio praecedentum.

The institutes of these men, the precepts of these men, insofar as I am able, I will set down briefly and faithfully. For since the organized army incurs the same expenses both diligently and negligently, it benefits not only the present, but also future ages, if by the provision of Your Majesty, Emperor Augustus, the most strong disposition of the armaments be restored and the dissimulation of predecessors be corrected.

IIII. In omnibus auctoribus inuenitur singulos consules aduersum hostes copiosissimos non amplius quam binas duxisse legiones additis auxiliis sociorum. Tanta in illis erat exercitatio, tanta fiducia, ut cuiuis bello duae legiones crederentur posse sufficere.

4. In all the authors it is found that each consul, against the most numerous enemies, led no more than two legions, with the auxiliaries of the allies added. So great in them was training, so great confidence, that for any war two legions were believed able to suffice.

Quapropter ordinationem legionis antiquae secundum normam militaris iuris exponam. Quae descriptio si obscurior aut inpolitior uidebitur, non mihi sed difficultati ipsius rei conuenit inputari. Adtento itaque animo saepius relegenda sunt, ut memoria intellegentiaque ualeant conprehendi.

Wherefore I will set forth the organization of the ancient legion according to the norm of military law. If this description seems rather obscure or unpolished, it ought to be imputed not to me, but to the difficulty of the matter itself. Therefore it should be re-read more often with an attentive mind, so that it may be able to be comprehended by memory and intelligence.

Necesse est enim inuictam esse rempublicam, cuius imperator militari arte percepta, quantos uoluerit, faciat exercitus bellicosos.

For it is necessary that the republic be invincible, whose
commander, with the military art mastered, makes as many
warlike armies as he wishes.

V. Diligenter igitur lectis iunioribus animis corporibusque praestantibus, additis etiam exercitiis cotidianis quattuor uel eo amplius mensuum, iussu auspiciisque inuictissimi principis legio formatur. Nam uicturis in cute punctis milites scripti, cum matriculis inseruntur, iurare solent; et ideo militiae sacramenta dicuntur. Iurant autem per Deum et Christum et sanctum Spiritum et per maiestatem imperatoris, quae secundum Deum generi humano diligenda est et colenda.

5. Therefore, with juniors carefully selected, outstanding in minds and bodies, and with daily exercises of four months or more added, by the order and under the auspices of the most invincible prince, a legion is formed. For when the soldiers, enrolled with marks to last pricked in the skin, are inserted into the matricular rolls, they are accustomed to swear; and for this reason they are called the sacraments of military service. They swear by God and Christ and the Holy Spirit and by the majesty of the emperor, which, next to God, is to be loved and revered by the human race.

Nam imperator cum Augusti nomen accepit, tamquam praesenti et corporali Deo fidelis est praestanda deuotio, inpendendus peruigil famulatus. Deo enim uel priuatus uel militans seruit, cum fideliter cum diligit qui Deo regnat auctore. Iurant autem milites omnia se strenue facturos, quae praeceperit imperator, numquam deserturos militiam nec mortem recusaturos pro Romana republica.

For when the emperor has received the name of Augustus, as to a present and corporeal God faithful devotion is to be rendered, and an ever-wakeful servitude to be expended.
For he serves God, whether as a private citizen or as a soldier, when he faithfully loves him who reigns by God as author.
Moreover the soldiers swear that they will strenuously do all that the emperor shall have commanded, that they will never desert the service, nor refuse death for the Roman Republic.

VI. Sciendum autem est in una legione decem cohortes esse debere. Sed prima cohors reliquas et numero militum et dignitate praecedit. Nam genere atque institutione litterarum uiros electissimos quaerit.

6. It must, however, be known that in one legion there ought to be ten cohorts. But the first
cohort precedes the rest both in number of soldiers and in dignity. For by birth and
cultivation of letters it seeks men most select.

Haec enim suscipit aquilam, quod praecipuum signum in Romano est semper exercitu et totius legionis insigne; haec imagines imperatorum, hoc est diuina et praesentia signa, ueneratur; habet pedites mille centum quinque, equites loricatos CXXXII, et appellatur cohors miliaria; haec caput est legionis, ab hac, cum pugnandum est, prima acies incipit ordinari. Secunda cohors habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI, et appellatur cohors quingenaria. Tertia cohors similiter habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI, sed in hac cohorte tertia ualidiores probari moris est, quia in media acie consistit.

This one takes charge of the eagle, which is always the foremost standard in the Roman army and the emblem of the whole legion; this one venerates the images of the emperors, that is, the divine and present standards; it has 1,105 infantry, 132 loricate cavalry, and is called the milliary cohort; this is the head of the legion; from this, when there is fighting to be done, the first battle-line begins to be drawn up. The second cohort has 555 infantry, 66 cavalry, and is called the quingenary cohort. The third cohort likewise has 555 infantry, 66 cavalry, but in this third cohort it is the custom that the stronger men be proved, because it takes position in the middle line.

Cohors quarta habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI. Cohors quinta habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI; sed et quinta cohors strenuos desideret milites, quia, sicut prima in dextro, ita quinta in sinistro ponitur cornu. Hae quinque cohortes in prima acie ordinantur.

The fourth cohort has 555 infantry, 66 horsemen. The fifth cohort has 555 infantry, 66 horsemen; and the fifth cohort too requires strenuous soldiers, because, just as the first is placed on the right wing, so the fifth is placed on the left wing. These five cohorts are arranged in the first battle-line.

Sexta cohors habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI; in ipsa quoque enucleati adscribendi sunt iuniores, quia in secunda acie post aquilam et imagines cohors sexta consistit. Cohors VII. habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI.

The sixth cohort has 555 infantry, 66 cavalry; in it also carefully selected younger men are to be adscribed, because in the second battle-line after the eagle and the images the sixth cohort takes its stand. The 7th cohort has 555 infantry, 66 cavalry.

Cohors VIII. habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI; sed et ipsa animosos desiderat uiros, quia in secunda acie consistit in medio. Cohors nona habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI.

Cohort 8. has infantry 555, cavalry 66; but even
it needs spirited men, because in the second battle-line it stands in the middle. Cohort
9 has infantry 555, cavalry 66.

Cohors X. habet pedites DLV, equites LXVI; et ipsa bona consueuit accipere bellatores, quia in secunda acie sinistrum possidet cornum. His decem cohortibus legio plena fundatur, quae habet pedites sex milia centum, equites DCCXXX. Minor itaque numerus armatorum in una legione esse non debet; maior autem interdum esse consueuit, si non tantum unam cohortem sed etiam alias miliarias fuerit iussa suscipere.

Cohort 10 has 555 infantry, 66 cavalry;
it too is accustomed to receive good warriors, because in the second battle-line
it holds the left wing. With these ten cohorts a full legion is constituted, which
has 6,100 infantry, 730 cavalry. Therefore a smaller number of armed men ought not
to be in one legion; but a greater is sometimes customary, if it has been ordered
to take in not only one cohort but also other milliary cohorts.

VII. Antiqua ordinatione legionis exposita, principalium militum et, ut proprio uerbo utar, principiorum nomina ac dignitates secundum praesentes matriculas indicabo. Tribunus maior per epistolam sacram imperatoris iudicio destinatur.

7. With the ancient organization of the legion set forth, I shall indicate, according to the present muster-rolls, the names and dignities of the principal soldiers and, to use the proper word, of the principia. The major tribune is designated by sacred epistle at the emperor’s judgment.

Minor tribunus peruenit ex labore. Tribunus autem uocatur ex tribu, quia praeest militibus, quos ex tribu primus Romulus legit. Ordinarii dicuntur qui in proelio (quia primi sunt,) ordines ducunt.

The minor tribune attains it through labor. Tribune, moreover, is called from tribe, because he is set over the soldiers, whom Romulus first enrolled from the tribe. Ordinarii are so called who in battle (because they are first,) lead the ranks.

Augustales appellantur qui ab Augusto ordinariis iuncti sunt. Flauiales item, tamquam secundi Augustales, a diuo Vespasiano sunt legionibus additi. Aquiliferi qui aquilam portant.

They are called Augustales who were joined to the ordinarii by Augustus.
Likewise the Flaviales, as second Augustales, were added to the legions by the deified Vespasian.
Aquilifers, who carry the eagle.

Imaginarii qui imperatoris imagines ferunt. Optiones ab adoptando appellati, quod antecedentibus aegritudine praepeditis hi tamquam adoptati eorum atque uicarii solent uniuersa curare. Signiferi qui signa portant, quos nunc draconarios uocant.

Imaginarii, who bear the images of the emperor. Optiones, so named from “adopting,” because when their superiors are impeded by sickness, these, as if adopted in their place and vicars, are accustomed to take care of everything. Signifers, who carry the standards, whom they now call draconarii.

Tesserarii qui tesseram per contubernia militum nuntiant; tessera autem dicitur praeceptum ducis, quo uel ad aliquod opus uel ad bellum mouetur exercitus. Campigeni, hoc est antesignani, ideo sic nominati, quia eorum opera atque uirtute exercitii genus crescit in campo. Metatores qui praecedentes locum eligunt castris.

Tesserarii, who announce the tessera through the contubernia of the soldiers;
the tessera, moreover, is called the precept of the leader, by which the army is moved either to some work or to war.
Campigeni, that is, antesignani, are so named because by their work and virtue the kind of exercise (training) grows in the field. Metatores, who, going before, choose a place for the camp.

Beneficiarii ab eo appellati, quod promouentur beneficio tribunorum. Librarii ab eo, quod in libros referunt rationes ad milites pertinentes. Tubicines cornicines et bucinatores qui tuba uel aere curuo uel bucina committere proelium solent.

Beneficiarii are so called because
they are promoted by the favor of the tribunes. Librarii are so called because they enter into the books
the accounts pertaining to the soldiers. Tubicines, cornicines, and bucinators, who with the trumpet
or with curved bronze or with the bucina are accustomed to join battle.

Armaturae duplares qui binas consecuntur annonas, simplares qui singulas. Mensores qui in castris ad podismum demetiuntur loca, in quibus tentoria milites figant, uel hospitia in ciuitatibus praestant. Torquati duplares, torquati simplares; torques aureus solidus uirtutis praemium fuit, quem qui meruisset praeter laudem interdum duplas consequebatur annonas.

Armaturae duplares, who
receive double rations; simplares, who single ones. Mensores, who in the camp by podism (pacing) measure out the places in which the soldiers may pitch their tents, or provide lodgings in
the cities. Torquati duplares, torquati simplares; a solid golden torque
was a prize of valor, and whoever had earned it, besides praise, sometimes
obtained double rations.

Duplares, sesquiplicares: duplares duas, sesquiplicares unam semis consequebantur annonam. Candidati duplares, candidati simplares. Hi sunt milites principales, qui priuilegiis muniuntur.

Duplares, sesquiplicares: the Duplares received two rations,
the Sesquiplicares one and a half rations. Candidati duplares, Candidati
simplares. These are principal soldiers, who are endowed with privileges.

Reliqui munifices appellantur, quia munera facere coguntur.

The rest are called munifices, because they are compelled to perform munera.

VIII. Vetus tamen consuetudo tenuit, ut ex primo principe legionis promoueretur centurio primi pili, qui non solum aquilae praeerat, uerum etiam quattuor centurias, hoc est CCCC milites, in prima acie gubernabat. Hic tamquam caput totius legionis merita consequebatur et commoda.

8. Nevertheless an old custom held, that from the first princeps of the legion there was promoted the centurion of the first pilus, who not only was in charge of the eagle, but also governed four centuries, that is 400 soldiers, in the first battle line. He, as if the head of the whole legion, obtained the rewards and emoluments.

Item primus hastatus duas centurias, id est CC homines, ducebat in acie secunda, quem nunc ducenarium uocant. Princeps autem primae cohortis centuriam semis, hoc est CL homines, gubernabat. Ad quem in legione prope omnia, quae ordinanda sunt, pertinent.

Likewise, the first hastatus led two centuries, that is 200 men, in the second battle-line, whom they now call a ducenarius. But the princeps of the first cohort governed a century and a half, that is 150 men. To him in the legion pertain nearly all the things that are to be arranged.

Item secundus hastatus centuriam semis, id est CL homines, regebat. Triarius prior centum homines gubernabat. Sic decem centuriae cohortis primae a quinque ordinariis regebantur.

Likewise the second hastatus directed a century and a half, that is 150 men. The leading triarius governed 100 men. Thus the 10 centuries of the first cohort were governed by 5 ordinarii.

Quibus magnae utilitates et magnus honor esta ueteribus constitutus, ut ceteri milites ex tota legione omni labore ac deuotione contenderent ad tanta praemia peruenire. Erant etiam centuriones, qui singulas centurias curabant; qui nunc centenarii nominantur. Erant decani, denis militibus praepositi, qui nunc caput contubernii uocantur.

By these, great advantages and great honor were established by the ancients, so that the rest of the soldiers from the whole legion would strive with every labor and devotion to arrive at such great rewards. There were also centurions, who took care of individual centuries; who now are named centenarii. There were decani, set over ten soldiers, who now are called the head of the contubernium.

Secunda cohors habebat centuriones quinque; similiter tertia quarta usque ad decimam cohortem. In tota autem legione erant centuriones quinquaginta quinque.

Second cohort had five centurions; similarly the third, the fourth, up to the tenth cohort. But in the whole legion there were fifty-five centurions.

VIIII. Sed legati imperatoris ex consulibus ad exercitus mittebantur, quibus legiones et auxilia uniuersa obtemperabant in ordinatione pacis uel necessitate bellorum, in quorum locum nunc inlustres uiros constat magistros militum substitutos, a quibus non tantum binae legiones sed etiam plures numeri gubernantur. Proprius autem iudex erat praefectus legionis, habens comitiuae primi ordinis dignitatem, qui absente legato tamquam uicarius ipsius potestatem maximam retinebat.

9. But the emperor’s legates from among the consuls were sent to the armies, to whom the legions and all the auxiliaries obeyed in the ordination of peace or the necessity of wars; in whose place now, it is agreed, illustrious men, masters of soldiers, have been substituted, by whom not only two legions apiece but also several units (numeri) are governed. The proper judge, moreover, was the prefect of the legion, having the dignity of the comitiva of the first order, who, with the legate absent, as his vicar retained the greatest power.

Tribuni uel centuriones ceterique milites eius praecepta seruabant. Vigiliarum siue profectionis tessera ab eodem petebatur. Si miles crimen aliquod admisisset, auctoritate praefecti legionis a tribuno deputabatur ad poenam.

Tribunes or centurions and the remaining soldiers observed his precepts. The watchword for the watches or for departure was requested from that same man. If a soldier had committed some offense, by the authority of the prefect of the legion he was assigned by a tribune to punishment.

Arma omnium militum, item equi uestes annona ad curam ipsius pertinebat. Disciplinae seueritas, exercitatio non solum peditum sed etiam equitum legionariorum praecepto eius cotidie curabatur. Ipse autem iustus diligens sobrius legionem sibi creditam adsiduis operibus ad omnem deuotionem, ad omnem formabat industriam, sciens ad praefecti laudem subiectorum redundare uirtutem.

The arms of all the soldiers, likewise the horses, clothing, and rations, fell under his care. The severity of discipline, and the training not only of the infantry but also of the legionary cavalry, was attended to daily by his precept. He himself—just, diligent, sober—by assiduous labors shaped the legion entrusted to him to every devotion and to every industry, knowing that the virtue (valor) of subordinates redounds to the praise of the prefect.

X. Erat etiam castrorum praefectus, licet inferior dignitate, occupatus tamen non mediocribus causis, ad quem castrorum positio, ualli et fossae aestimatio pertinebat. Tabernacula uel casae militum cum inpedimentis omnibus nutu ipsius curabantur. Praeterea aegri contubernales et medici, a quibus curabantur, expensae etiam ad eius industriam pertinebant.

10. There was also a prefect of the camp, although inferior in dignity, yet occupied with no mean concerns, to whom belonged the siting of the camp and the evaluation of the rampart and ditch. The soldiers’ tents or huts, together with all the impedimenta, were cared for at his nod. Moreover, the sick tent‑companions and the physicians by whom they were treated—the expenses too fell under his diligence.

Vehicula sagmarii necnon etiam ferramenta, quibus materies secatur uel caeditur, quibusque aperiuntur fossae, contexitur uallum aquaeductus, item ligna uel stramina arietes onagri ballistae ceteraque genera tormentorum ne deessent aliquando, procurabat. Is post longam probatamque militiam peritissimus omnium legebatur, ut recte doceret alios quod ipse cum laude fecisset.

The vehicles of the pack-train, as well also
the iron implements by which timber is cut or hewn, and by which ditches are opened,
the rampart is woven, the aqueduct constructed; likewise wood or straw, battering-rams, onagers, ballistae,
and the other kinds of engines—he saw to it that they might not at any time be lacking. After a long
and well-proved military service, he, as the most expert of all, was chosen, so that he might rightly teach others what
he himself had done with praise.

XI. Habet praeterea legio fabros tignarios structores carpentarios ferrarios, pictores reliquosque artifices ad hibernorum aedificia fabricanda, ad machinas turres ligneas ceteraque, quibus uel expugnantur aduersariorum ciuitates uel defenduntur propriae, praeparatos, qui arma uehicula ceteraque genera tormentorum uel noua facerent uel quassata repararent. Habebant etiam fabricas scutarias loricarias arcuarias, in quibus sagittae missibilia cassides omniaque armorum genera formabantur. Haec enim erat cura praecipua, ut quicquid exercitui necessarium uidebatur numquam deesset in castris, usque eo, ut etiam cunicularios haberent, qui ad morem Bessorum ducto sub terris cuniculo murisque intra fundamenta perfossis inprouisi emergerent ad urbes hostium capiendas.

11. The legion moreover has woodwrights, builders, wagon-makers, smiths, painters, and the rest of the artificers prepared for constructing the buildings of the winter quarters, for machines, wooden towers, and the other things by which the adversaries’ cities are stormed or one’s own are defended, men to make weapons, vehicles, and the other kinds of engines of war anew, or to repair what had been battered. They also had manufactories—shield-works, cuirass-works, and bow-works—in which arrows, projectiles, helmets, and every kind of arms were fashioned. For this was the principal care: that whatever seemed necessary for the army should never be lacking in the camp, to such a degree that they even had miners, who, after the manner of the Bessi, with a tunnel driven under the earth and the walls pierced within the foundations, would emerge unlooked-for to seize the enemy cities.

Horum iudex proprius erat praefectus fabrum.

The proper judge of these men was the prefect of the engineers.

XII. Decem cohortes habere diximus legionem. Sed prima erat miliaria, in qua censu genere litteris forma uirtute pollentes milites mittebantur.

12. We have said that a legion has ten cohorts. But the first was a milliary cohort, into which soldiers excelling in census, lineage, letters, form, and virtue were sent.

Huic tribunus praeerat armorum scientia, uirtute corporis, morum honestate praecipuus. Reliquae cohortes, prout principi placuisset, a tribunis uel a praepositis regebantur. Tanta autem seruabatur exercendi milites cura, ut non solum tribuni uel praepositi contubernales sibi creditos sub oculis suis iuberent cotidie meditari, sed etiam ipsi armorum arte perfecti ceteros ad imitationem proprio cohortarentur exemplo.

Over it a tribune presided, preeminent in knowledge of arms, strength of body, and honesty of morals. The remaining cohorts, as it pleased the princeps, were governed either by tribunes or by prepositi. Such care, moreover, was maintained in exercising the soldiers that not only did the tribunes or prepositi order the contubernales entrusted to them to practice daily under their own eyes, but they themselves, perfected in the art of arms, also encouraged the rest to imitation by their own example.

Tribuni autem sollicitudo, tribuni laudatur industria, cum miles ueste nitidus, armis bene munitus ac fulgens, exercitii usu et disciplina eruditus incedit.

However, the tribune’s solicitude, the tribune’s industry is praised, when the soldier, neat in dress, well-equipped and gleaming in arms, advances, instructed by the use of exercise and by discipline.

XIII. Primum signum totius legionis est aquila, quam aquilifer portat. Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis feruntur ad proelium.

13. The first standard of the whole legion is the eagle, which the aquilifer carries. Dragons also, in each cohort, are borne to battle by the draconarii.

Sed antiqui, quia sciebant in acie commisso bello celeriter ordines aciesque turbari atque confundi, ne hoc posset accidere, cohortes in centurias diuiserunt et singulis centuriis singula vexilla constituerunt, ita ut, ex qua cohorte uel quota esset centuria, in illo uexillo litteris esset adscriptum, quod intuentes uel legentes milites in quantouis tumultu a contubernalibus suis aberrare non possent. Centuriones insuper, qui nunc centenarii uocantur, (nimium bellicosus) (loricatos) transuersis cassidum cassidum cristis, ut facilius noscerentur, singulas iusserunt gubernare centurias, quantenus nullus error existeret, cum centeni milites sequerentur non solum uexillum suum sed etiam centurionem, qui signum habebat in galea. Rursus ipsae centuriae in contubernia diuisae sunt, ut decem militibus sub uno papilione degentibus unus quasi praeesset decanus, qui caput contubernii nominatur.

But the ancients, because they knew that, when battle was joined on the battle-line, the ranks and the battle-lines were quickly disturbed and thrown into confusion, so that this could not happen, divided the cohorts into centuries and assigned a single vexillum to each century, in such a way that, from which cohort and what-numbered the century was, was written in letters on that vexillum; and, by looking at or reading it, the soldiers, in however great a tumult, could not stray from their tent-mates. Moreover, the centurions, who now are called centenaries, (excessively warlike) (in cuirasses), with the crests of their helmets set crosswise, so that they might be more easily recognized, were ordered to govern each several century, to the end that no error might arise, since a hundred soldiers would follow not only their own vexillum but also the centurion, who had a sign upon his helmet. Again, the centuries themselves were divided into contubernia, so that, with ten soldiers dwelling under one pavilion, there was one, as it were, presiding, the decanus, who is called the head of the contubernium.

Contubernium autem manipulus uocabatur ab eo, quod coniunctis manibus pariter dimicabant.

The contubernium, moreover, was called a maniple from this fact: because, with hands joined, they fought together.

XIIII. Quemadmodum inter pedites centuria uel manipulus appellatur, ita inter equites turma dicitur; et habet una turma equites XXXII. Huic qui praeest decurio nominatur.

14. Just as among the foot-soldiers it is called a century or a maniple, so among the cavalry it is called a turma; and one turma has 32 cavalrymen. The one who is in charge of this is called a decurion.

Centum enim decem pedites ab uno centurione sub uno uexillo gubernantur; similiter XXXII equites ab uno decurione sub uno uexillo reguntur. Praeterea sicut centurio eligendus est magnis uiribus, procera statura, qui dimicare gladio et scutum rotare doctissime nouerit, qui omnem artem didicerit armaturae, uigilans sobrius agilis, magis ad facienda quae ei imperantur quam ad loquendum paratus, contubernales suos ad disciplinam retineat, ad armorum exercitium cogat, ut bene uestiti et calciati sint, ut arma omnium defricentur ac splendeant; similiter eligendus est decurio, qui turmae equitum praeponatur, inprimis habili corpore, ut loricatus et armis circumdatus omnibus cum summa admiratione equum possit ascendere, equitare fortissime, conto scienter uti, sagittas doctissime mittere, turmales suos, id est sub cura sua equites positos, erudire ad omnia quae equestris pugna deposcit, eosdem cogere loricas suas uel catafractas, contos et cassides frequenter tergere et curare. Plurimum enim terroris hostibus armorum splendor inportat.

For one hundred and ten infantrymen are governed by one centurion under one standard; likewise 32 cavalrymen are ruled by one decurion under one standard. Moreover, just as a centurion ought to be chosen of great strength, of tall stature, who knows most skillfully how to fight with the sword and to wheel the shield, who has learned every art of armature, vigilant, sober, agile, more ready to do what is commanded him than to speak, who keeps his contubernales to discipline, compels them to the exercise of arms, that they be well clothed and shod, that everyone’s arms be rubbed down and shine; similarly a decurion ought to be chosen to be set over a turma of horsemen, with a body especially fit, so that, armored in a lorica and surrounded with all arms, he can mount his horse to the highest admiration, ride most bravely, use the lance (contus) knowingly, shoot arrows most skillfully, instruct his troopers—that is, the horsemen placed under his care—in all things which cavalry combat demands, and compel those same men to wipe and care for their loricae or cataphracts, their lances and helmets frequently. For the splendor of arms brings very much terror upon enemies.

Quis credat militem bellicosum, cuius dissimulatione situ ac robigine arma foedantur? Non solum autem equites sed etiam ipsos equos adsiduo labore conuenit edomari. Itaque ad decurionem et sanitatis et exercitationis tam hominum quam equorum pertinet cura.

Who would believe a bellicose soldier,
by whose neglect his arms are befouled by mould and rust? Not only
the horsemen, moreover, but even the horses themselves ought to be subdued by assiduous labor. And so to
the decurion pertains the care of both health and exercise, of men as well as of horses.

XV. Nunc, qualiter instruenda sit acies, si pugna immineat declaretur unius legionis exemplo; quod, si usus exegerit, transferri possit ad plures. Equites locantur in cornibus. Acies peditum a prima cohorte incipit ordinari in cornu dextro.

15. Now, how the battle-line ought to be arranged, if a battle impends, let it be declared by the example of a single legion; which, if need shall require, can be transferred to more. The cavalry are placed on the wings. The line of infantry begins to be arrayed from the first cohort on the right wing.

Huic cohors secunda coniungitur. Tertia cohors in media acie conlocatur. Huic adnectitur quarter.

To this the second cohort is joined. The third cohort in the middle battle-line
is placed. To this the fourth is attached.

Quinta uero cohors sinistrum suscipit cornum. Sed ante signa et circa signa nec non etiam in prima acie dimicantes principes uocabantur(, hoc est ordinarii ceterique principales). Haec erat grauis armatura, quia habebant cassides catafractas ocreas scuta gladios maiores, quos spathas uocant, et alios minores, quos semispathia nominant, plumbatas quinas positas in scutis, quas primo impetu iaciunt, item bina missibilia, unum maius ferro triangulo unciarum nouem, hastili pedem quinque semis, quod pilum uocabant, nunc spiculum dicitur, ad cuius ictum exercebantur praecipue milites, quod arte et uirtute directum et scutatos pedites et loricatos equites saepe transuerberat, aliud minus ferro unciarum quinque, hastili pedum trium semis, quod tunc uericulum, nunc uerutum dicitur. Prima acies principum(, secunda hastatorum) armis talibus docetur instructa.

The fifth cohort, however, takes up the left wing.
But those fighting before the standards and around the standards, and likewise also in the first battle-line, were called principes(, that is, the ordinarii and the rest of the principales). This was the heavy armature, because they had helmets, cataphract greaves, shields, larger swords, which they call spathae, and other smaller ones, which they name semispathia, five plumbatae set in their shields, which they hurl at the first onset, likewise two missiles, one larger with an iron triangular head of nine inches, with a shaft of five feet and a half, which they used to call the pilum, now it is called the spiculum, at the blow of which the soldiers were especially trained, because, directed by art and virtus, it often pierces through both shield-bearing foot-soldiers and mail-clad horsemen; another smaller, with iron of five inches, with a shaft of three feet and a half, which then was called the vericulum, now is called the verutum. The first line of the principes(, the second of the hastati) is taught to be arrayed with such arms.

Post hos erant ferentarii et leuis armatura, quos nunc exculcatores et armaturas dicimus, scutati (qui) plumbatis gladiis et missibilibus accincti, sicut nunc prope omnes milites uidentur armati, erant item sagittarii cum cassidibus catafractis et gladiis, sagittis et arcubus, erant funditores, qui ad fundas uel fustibalos lapides iaciebant, erant tragularii, qui ad manuballistas uel arcuballistas dirigebant sagittas. Secunda acies similiter armabatur, in qua consistentes milites hastati uocabantur. Sed in secunda acie dextro cornu cohors sexta ponebatur, cui iungebatur septima.

After these
were the ferentarii and the light armature, whom we now call exculcatores and armaturas,
shield-bearers (who), girded with plumbatae, swords, and missiles, just as now
nearly all soldiers seem to be armed; there were likewise archers with cataphract helmets
and swords, arrows and bows; there were slingers, who with slings or staff-slings hurled stones;
there were tragularii, who with manuballistas or arcuballistas directed arrows. The second line was similarly armed, in which
the soldiers standing were called hastati. But in the second line, on the right wing,
the sixth cohort was placed, to which the seventh was joined.

Octaua cohors mediam aciem tenebat nona comitante. Decima cohors in secunda acie sinistrum semper obtinet cornum.

The eighth cohort held the middle of the battle line
with the ninth accompanying. The tenth cohort in the second battle line always holds
the left wing.

XVI. Post omnes autem acies triarii cum scutis catafractis et galeis ocreati cum gladiis semispathiis plumbatis binis missibilibus locabantur, qui genu posito subsidebant, ut, si primae acies uincerentur, ab his quasi de integro reparata pugna posset sperari uictoria. Omnes antesignani uel signiferi, quamuis pedites, loricas minores accipiebant et galeas ad terrorem hostium ursinis pellibus tectas.

16. But after all the battle-lines the triarii were stationed, wearing greaves, with cataphract shields and helmets, equipped with short spathae (semispathae) and two lead-weighted throwing-darts (plumbatae) as missiles; they, with knee set down, would crouch, so that, if the first lines were overcome, from them, as though the fight were renewed afresh, victory might be hoped. All the antesignani or signifers, although foot-soldiers, received smaller cuirasses and helmets covered with bearskins to strike terror into the enemy.

Centuriones uero habebant catafractas et scuta et galeas ferreas, sed transuersis et argentatis cristis, ut celerius agnoscerentur a suis.

Centurions, moreover, had coats of mail and shields and iron helmets, but with transverse and silvered crests, so that they might be recognized more quickly by their own men.

XVII. Illud autem sciendum est et modis omnibus retinendum: commisso bello prima ac secunda acies stabat inmota, triarii quoque residebant. Ferentarii autem armaturae exculcatores sagittarii funditores, hoc est leuis armatura, aduersarios prouocabant ante aciem praecedentes.

17. But this is to be known and by all means to be held fast: when battle was joined, the first and second battle-line stood unmoved, and the triarii too remained seated. But the ferentarii, the armatura troops, the exculcatores, the archers, the slingers—that is, the light-armed—challenged the adversaries, advancing before the line.

Si hostes fugare potuerant, sequebantur; si eorum uirtute aut multitudine premebantur, reuertebantur ad suos et post eos stabant. Excipiebant autem proelium grauis armatura, et tamquam murus, ut ita dicam, ferreus stabat et non solum missibilibus sed etiam gladiis comminus dimicabant. Et si hostes fugassent, non sequebatur grauis armatura, ne aciem suam ordinationemque turbaret et ad dispersos recurrentes hostes incompositos obprimerent, sed leuis armatura cum funditoribus sagittariis et equitibus fugientes sequebatur inimicos.

If they were able to rout the enemies, they followed; if they were pressed by their valor or by their multitude, they returned to their own and stood behind them. However, the heavy armature received the battle, and, as a wall, so to speak, of iron stood, and they fought not only with missiles but also with swords at close quarters. And if they had put the enemies to flight, the heavy armature did not pursue, lest it disturb its own battle-line and ordering, and so that they might crush the enemies, returning to their scattered ranks, while uncomposed; but the light armature, together with the slingers, archers, and horsemen, followed the fleeing foes.

Hac dispositione atque cautela sine periculo legio uincebat aut superata seruabatur incolumis, quia legionis ius est facile nec fugere nec sequi.

By this disposition and caution the legion would conquer without danger, or, if overcome, was preserved intact, because it is the legion’s rule not readily to flee nor to pursue.

(XVIII.) Sed ne milites aliquando in tumultu proelii a suis contubernalibus aberrarent, diuersis cohortibus diuersa in scutis signa pingebant, ut ipsi nominant, digmata, sicut etiam nunc moris est fieri. Praeterea in aduerso scuto uiuscuiusque militis litteris erat nomen adscriptum, addito et ex qua esset cohorte quaue centuria. Ex his igitur apparet legionem bene instituam quasi munitissimam esse ciuitatem, quae omnia proelia necessaria secum ubique portaret nec metueret repentinum hostium superuentum, quae etiam in mediis campis subito fossa se ualloque muniret, quae omne genus militum contineret et armorum.

(18.) But, lest the soldiers at some time in the tumult of battle stray from their own tent‑mates, they painted different signs on the shields for different cohorts—what they themselves call digmata—as even now it is the custom to do. Moreover, on the face of each soldier’s shield his name was inscribed in letters, with the addition of from which cohort or which century he was. From these things, therefore, it appears that a well‑instituted legion is, as it were, a most fortified city, which carried with it everywhere all things necessary for battles and did not fear the sudden supervention of enemies; which also, in the midst of open fields, would suddenly fortify itself with ditch and rampart; which contained every kind of soldiers and of armaments.

Si quis igitur pugna publica superari barbaros cupit, ut diuinitas nutu, dispositione imperatoris inuicti reparentur ex tironibus legiones, uotis omnibus petat. Intra breue autem spatium temporis iuniores diligenter electi et exercitati cotidie non solum mane sed etiam post meridiem omni armorum disciplina uel arte bellandi ueteres illos milites, qui orbem terrarum integrum subegerunt, facile coaequabunt. Nec moueat, quod olim est consuetudo mutata quae uiguit; sed huius felicitatis ac prouisionis est perennitas tua, ut pro salute reipublicae et noua excogitet et antiqua restituat.

If, therefore, anyone desires that in a pitched battle the barbarians be overcome, let him with all vows beseech that, by the nod of divinity and by the disposition of the invincible emperor, the legions be restored from recruits. Within a brief span of time, the younger men, carefully selected and drilled daily not only in the morning but also after midday in every discipline of arms and the art of warring, will easily equal those old soldiers who subdued the entire circle of lands. Nor let it move you that the custom which once flourished has been altered; rather, the perennity of this felicity and providence is yours, namely, that for the safety of the Republic you both devise new things and restore the old.

Omne opus difficile uidetur, antequam temptes; ceterum si exercitati et prudentes uiri dilectui praeponantur, celeriter manus bellis apta poterit adgregari et diligenter institui. Quiduis enim efficit sollertia, si conpetentes non denegentur expensae.

Every work seems difficult before you attempt it; however, if trained and prudent men are set over the levy, a force apt for wars can quickly be aggregated and diligently instructed. For ingenuity accomplishes anything, if adequate expenses are not denied.

XVIIII. Sed quoniam in legionibus plures scholae sunt, quae litteratos milites quaerunt, ab his, qui tirones probant, in omnibus quidem staturae magnitudinem, corporis robur, alacritatem animi conuenit explorari, sed in quibusdam notarum peritia, calculandi computandique usus eligitur. Totius enim legionis ratio, siue obsequiorum siue militarium munerum siue pecuniae, cotidie adscribitur actis maiore prope diligentia, quam res annonaria uel ciuilis polyptychis adnotatur.

19. But since in the legions there are several schools which require literate soldiers, those who approve the recruits ought, in all cases, to examine the magnitude of stature, the strength of the body, and the alacrity of spirit; but in some, skill in notae (shorthand), and the practice of calculating and computing, is selected. For the account of the whole legion, whether of attendances, or of military duties, or of money, is daily entered in the records with almost greater diligence than the provisioning (annona) or the civil business is annotated in polyptychs.

Cotidianas etiam in pace uigilias, item excubitum siue agrarias de omnibus centuriis et contuberniis uicissim milites faciunt: ut ne quis contra iustitiam praegrauetur aut alicui praestetur immunitas, nomina eorum, qui uices suas fecerunt, breuibus inseruntur. Quando quis commeatum acceperit uel quot dierum, adnotatur in breuibus. Tunc enim difficile commeatus dabatur, nisi causis iustissimis adprobatis.

Even in peace the daily watches, likewise the out‑guard or agrarian (field) duties, the soldiers perform in turn from all the centuries and contubernia: so that no one be overburdened contrary to justice or any immunity be afforded to someone, the names of those who have done their turns are inserted in the briefs. When someone has received leave, and for how many days, it is annotated in the briefs. For at that time leave was granted with difficulty, unless most just causes had been approved.

Nec aliquibus milites instituti deputabantur obsequiis, nec priuata eisdem negotia mandabantur; siquidem incongruum uideretur imperatoris militem, qui ueste et annona publica pascebatur, utilitatibus uacare priuatis. Ad obsequia tamen iudicium uel tribunorum nec non etiam principalium deputabantur milites, qui uocabantur accensi, hoc est postea additi, quam fuisset legio completa, quos nunc supernumerarios uocant; fascicularia tamen, id est lignum foenum aquam stramen, etiam legitimi milites in castra portabant. Munifices enim ab eo appellantur, quod haec munera faciunt.

Nor were trained soldiers assigned to any obsequies, nor were private businesses entrusted to those same men; since it would seem incongruous that a soldier of the emperor, who was clothed and fed by public clothing and rations, should be free for private utilities. Yet to the services of the court (iudicium) or of the tribunes, and likewise of the principales, soldiers were assigned, who were called accensi, that is, added afterwards, after the legion had been completed—whom they now call supernumeraries; nevertheless the fascicularia, that is, wood, hay, water, straw, even the legitimate (regular) soldiers carried into the camp. For they are called munifices from this, because they perform these munera.

XX. Illud uero ab antiquis diuinitus insitutum est, ut ex donatiuo, quod milites consecuntur, dimidia pars sequestraretur apud signa et ibidem ipsis militibus seruaretur, ne per luxum aut inanium rerum conparationem ab contubernalibus posset absumi. Plerique enim homines et praecipue pauperes tantum erogant, quantum habere potuerint. Sepositio autem ista pecuniae primum ipsis contubernalibus docetur adcommoda; nam cum publica sustententur annona, ex omnibus donatiuis augetur eorum pro medietate castrense peculium.

20. That indeed was by the ancients divinely instituted: that from the donative which the soldiers obtain, a half part should be sequestered at the standards and there kept for the soldiers themselves, lest through luxury or the acquisition of vain things it could be consumed by their tent-mates. For most men, and especially the poor, spend as much as they have been able to have. Moreover, this setting-aside of money is shown to be advantageous first to the tent-mates themselves; for, since they are sustained by the public ration, from all donatives their camp peculium is increased by a half.

Miles deinde, qui sumptus suos scit apud signa depositos, de deserendo nihil cogitat, magis diligit signa, pro illis in acie fortius dimicat, more humani ingenii, ut pro illis habeat maximam curam, in quibus suam uidet positam esse substantium. Denique decem folles, hoc est decem sacci, per cohortes singulas ponebantur, in quibus haec ratio condebatur. Addebatur etiam saccus undecimus, in quem tota legio particulam aliquam conferebat, sepulturae scilicet causa, ut, si quis ex contubernalibus defecisset, de illo undecimo sacco ad sepulturam ipsius promeretur expensa.

Then the soldier, who knows his expenses have been deposited at the standards, thinks nothing about deserting; he loves the standards more, he fights more bravely in the battle-line for them, by the nature of the human disposition, so that he has the greatest care for those things in which he sees his substance set. Finally, ten follies—that is, ten sacks—were placed for each cohort, in which this arrangement was stored. An eleventh sack was also added, into which the whole legion contributed some small portion, for burial’s sake, namely, that, if any of the tent-companions should pass away, from that eleventh sack the expense for his burial might be defrayed.

Haec ratio apud signiferos, ut nunc dicunt, in cofino seruabatur. Et ideo signiferi non solum fideles sed etiam litterati homines eligebantur, qui et seruare deposita scirent et singulis reddere rationem.

This arrangement among the signifers, as they now say, was kept in a coffer. And for that reason signifers were chosen not only as faithful but also as literate men, who knew both how to keep the deposits and to render an account to each individual.

XXI. Non tantum humano consilio sed etiam diuinitatis instinctu legiones a Romanis arbitror constitutas. In quibus decem cohortes ita sunt ordinatae, ut omnium unum corpus, una uideatur esse coniunctio.

21. I judge that the legions were constituted by the Romans not only by human counsel but also by the instigation of divinity. In them the ten cohorts are so ordered that of all there seems to be one body, one conjunction.

Nam quasi in orbem quendam per diuersas cohortes et diuersas scholas milites promouentur, ita ut ex prima cohorte ad gradum quempiam promotus uadat ad decimam cohortem et rursus ab ea crescentibus stipendiis cum maiore gradu per alias recurrat ad primam. Ideo primi pili centurio, postquam in orbem omnes cohortes per diuersas administrauerit scholas, in prima cohorte ad hanc peruenit palmam, in qua ex omni legione infinita commoda consequatur; sicut primiscrinius in officio praefectorum praetorio ad honestum quaestuosumque militiae peruenit finem. Ita legionarii equites cohortes suas contubernii adfectione uenerantur, cum naturaliter equites a peditibus soleant discrepere.

For as in a certain circuit soldiers are promoted through the various cohorts and various schools, so that, having been promoted from the first cohort to some grade, he goes to the tenth cohort, and again from it, with stipends increasing, with a higher grade he runs back through the others to the first. Therefore the centurion of the first pilum, after he has in a circuit administered all the cohorts through the various schools, in the first cohort comes to this palm, in which he obtains infinite advantages from the whole legion; just as the primiscrinius in the office of the Praetorian Prefects comes to an honorable and lucrative end of military service. Thus the legionary horsemen venerate their cohorts with the affection of contubernium, although by nature horsemen are wont to differ from foot-soldiers.

Per hanc ergo contextionem in legionibus et omnium cohortium et equitum peditumque seruabatur una concordia.

Through this contexture, therefore, in the legions and among all the cohorts and the cavalry and the infantry one concord was preserved.

XXII. Habet praeterea legio tubicines cornicines bucinatores. Tubicen ad bellum uocat milites et rursum receptui canit.

22. Moreover, the legion has trumpeters, horn-blowers, and buglers. The trumpeter summons the soldiers to war and in turn sounds the retreat.

Cornicines quotiens canunt, non milites sed signa ad eorum obtemperant nutum. Ergo quotiens ad aliquod opus exituri sunt soli milites, tubicines canunt, quotiens mouenda sunt signa, cornicines canunt; quotiens antem pugnatur, et tubicines et cornicines pariter canunt. Classicum item appellatur quod bucinatores per cornu dicunt.

Whenever the cornicines sound, it is not the soldiers but the standards that obey their signal. Therefore, whenever only the soldiers are going out to some task, the tubicines sound; whenever the standards are to be moved, the cornicines sound; whenever there is fighting, both the tubicines and the cornicines sound together. Likewise, that which the bucinatores “say” by the horn is called the classicum.

Hoc insigne uidetur imperii, quia classicum canitur imperatore praesente uel cum in militem capitaliter animaduertitur, quia hoc ex imperatoris legibus fieri necesse est. Siue ergo ad uigilias uel agrarias faciendas siue ad opus aliquod uel ad decursionem campi exeunt milites, tubicine uocante operantur et rursus tubicine admonente cessant. Cum autem mouentur signa aut iam mota figenda sunt, cornicines canunt.

This seems an emblem of the imperium, because the classicum is sounded with the emperor present, or when capital punishment is inflicted upon a soldier, since this must be done under the emperor’s laws. Whether therefore the soldiers go out to keep the vigils or to perform agrarian duties, or for some work, or for a decursion of the field, they labor at the trumpeter’s call, and again at the trumpeter’s admonition they cease. But when the standards are being moved, or, once moved, are to be fixed in place, the horn-blowers sound.

Quod ideo in omnibus exercitiis et processionibus custoditur, ut in ipsa pugna facilius obtemperent milites, siue eos pugnare siue stare siue sequi uel redire praeceperint duces; siquidem ratio manifesta sit semper in otio debere fieri quod necessario faciendum uidetur in proelio.

Which is therefore kept in all exercises and processions,
so that in the very battle the soldiers may more easily obey, whether the commanders have ordered them to fight
or to stand or to follow or to return; since the manifest rationale
is that what seems necessary to be done in battle ought always to be done in leisure.

XXIII. Legionis ordinatione digesta ad exercitium reuertimur, unde, sicut iam dictum est, exercitus nomen accepit. Iuniores quidem et noui milites mane ac post meridiem ad omne genus exercebantur armorum.

23. With the ordering of the legion arranged, we return to exercise, whence, as has already been said, the army received its name. The younger men and the new soldiers were exercised in every kind of arms in the morning and after midday.

Veteres autem et eruditi sine intermissione semel in die exercebantur armis. Neque enim longitudo aetatis aut annorum numerus artem bellicam tradit, sed, post quanta uolueris stipendia, inexercitatus miles semper est tiro. Armaturam, quae festis diebus exhibetur in circo, non tantum armaturae, qui sub campidoctore sunt, sed omnes aequaliter contubernales cotidiana meditatione discebant.

But the veterans and the well-trained without intermission were exercised in arms once a day. For neither the length of age nor the number of years hands down the art of war, but, after as many periods of service as you wish, an unexercised soldier is always a recruit. The armatura, which on feast days is exhibited in the circus, was learned by daily practice not only by the armaturae, who are under the campidoctor, but equally by all the contubernales (tent-mates).

Nam et uelocitas usu ipso adquiritur corporis et scientia feriendi hostem seque protegendi, praesertim si gladiis comminus dimicetur; illud uero maius est, quod seruare ordines discunt et uexillum suum in tantis permixtionibus in ipsa prolusione comitantur nec inter doctos aliquis error existit, cum multitudinis sit tanta confusio. Ad palum quoque uel sudibus exerceri percommodum est, cum latera uel pedes aut caput petere punctim caesimque condiscant. Saltus quoque et ictus facere pariter adsuescant, insurgere tripudiantes in clipeum rursusque subsidere, nunc gestiendo prouolare cum saltu, nunc cedentes in terga resilire.

For both speed itself is acquired by the very use of the body, and the knowledge of striking the enemy and of protecting oneself, especially if one fights hand-to-hand with swords; moreover, greater still is this: that they learn to keep their ranks and, in the very preliminary bout, amid such intermixtures, they keep with their own standard, nor does any error arise among the trained, though there is so great a confusion of the multitude. It is also very advantageous to be exercised at the stake or with stakes, since they thoroughly learn to aim at the flanks or the feet or the head, with thrust and with cut. Let them likewise become accustomed to make leaps and blows together, to spring, trippingly, upon the shield and then to sink back again, now, while brandishing, to fly forward with a leap, now, as they give ground, to spring back to the rear.

Missibilibus etiam palos ipsos procul ferire meditentur, ut et ars dirigendi et dexterae uirtus possit adcrescere. Sagittarii uero uel funditores scopas, hoc est fruticum uel straminum fasces, pro signo ponebant, ita ut sexcentis pedibus remouerentur a signo, ut sagittis uel certe lapidibus ex fustibalo destinatis signum saepius tangerent. Propterea sine trepidatione in acie faciebant quod ludentes in campo fecerant semper.

Let the missile troops also practice striking the very posts from afar, so that both the art of directing aim and the prowess of the right hand may grow. The archers and the slingers, moreover, would set up scopae—that is, bundles of shrubs or of straw—as a target, and they would place themselves 600 feet from the target, so that with arrows, or indeed with stones launched from the staff-sling, they would touch the target rather often. Therefore, without trepidation in the battle line they did what they had always done while “playing” in the field.

Adsuescendum est etiam, ut semel tantum funda circa caput rotetur, cum ex ea emittitur saxum. Sed et manu sola omnes milites meditabantur libralia saxa iactare, qui usus paratior creditur, quia non desiderat fundam. Missibilia quoque uel plumbatas iugi perpetuoque exercitio dirigere cogebantur usque adeo, ut tempore hiemis de tegulis uel scindulis, quae si deessent, certe de cannis, ulua uel culmo et porticus tegerentur ad equites et quaedam uelut basilicae ad pedites, in quibus tempestate uel uentis aere turbato sub tecto armis erudiebatur exercitus.

One must also get accustomed to this: that the sling be whirled only once around the head when the stone is discharged from it. And with the bare hand all the soldiers practiced throwing pound-weight stones, a practice considered readier, because it does not need a sling. They were also compelled to direct their missiles and even plumbatae (lead-weighted darts) with continual and perpetual exercise to such a degree that, in wintertime, porticoes were roofed for the horsemen out of tiles or shingles—if these were lacking, then certainly out of reeds, sedge, or straw-stalk—and certain hall-like basilicas for the foot-soldiers, in which, when storm or winds had disturbed the air, the army was trained under a roof in arms.

Ceteris autem etiam hibernis diebus, si niues tantum pluuiaeque cessarent, exerceri cogebantur in campo, ne intermissa consuetudo et animos militum debilitaret et corpora. Siluam caedere, portare onera, transilire fossas, natare in mari siue fluminibus, gradu pleno ambulare uel currere etiam armatos cum sarcinis suis frequentissime conuenit, ut cotidiani laboris usus in pace difficilis non uideatur in bello. Siue ergo legio siue auxilia fuerint, exerceantur adsidue.

Moreover, even on other winter days, if only the snows and rains would cease,
they were compelled to exercise in the field, lest the interrupted custom weaken both the spirits of the soldiers
and their bodies. To fell wood, carry burdens, leap across ditches,
to swim in the sea or in rivers, to walk at full pace or to run, even when armed
with their packs, is most frequently fitting, so that the practice of daily labor in peace
may not seem difficult in war. Whether therefore it be a legion or the auxiliaries,
let them be exercised continually.

Nam quemadmodum bene exercitatus miles proelium cupit, ita formidat indoctus. Postremo sciendum est in pugna usum amplius prodesse quam uires; nam si doctrina cesset armorum, nihil paganus distat a milite.

For just as a well-trained soldier longs for battle, so the untrained man fears it. Lastly, it must be known that in combat experience profits more than strength; for if training in arms is lacking, a peasant differs in nothing from a soldier.

XXIIII. Athleta uenator auriga propter exiguam mercedem uel certe plebis fauorem cotidiana meditatione artes suas aut seruare aut augere consueuit; militem, cuius est manibus seruanda respublica, studiosius oportet scientiam dimicandi usumque rei bellicae iugibus exercitiis custodire, cui contingit non tantum gloriosa uictoria sed etiam amplior praeda, quem ad opes ac dignitates ordo militiae et imperatoris iudicium consueuit euehere. Artifices scaenici ab exercitiis non recedunt pro laude uulgi; miles sacramento lectus ab exercitio armorum uel nouellus uel iam uetustus cessare non debet, cui pugnandum est pro salute propria et libertate communi, praesertim cum antiqua sit prudensque sententia omnes artes in meditatione consistere.

24. The athlete, the hunter, and the charioteer, for a scant wage or at any rate the favor of the populace, by daily practice are accustomed either to preserve or to augment their arts; the soldier, by whose hands the commonwealth is to be kept safe, ought more zealously to guard the knowledge of fighting and the practice of the military art by continual exercises, to whom there falls not only glorious victory but also richer booty, whom to wealth and dignities the order of soldiery and the judgment of the commander are wont to raise. Stage performers do not withdraw from their drills for the applause of the crowd; the soldier chosen by the military sacrament (oath), whether a novice or already a veteran, ought not to cease from the exercise of arms, who must fight for his own safety and the common liberty, especially since it is an ancient and prudent maxim that all arts consist in practice.

XXV. Legio autem non tantum militum numero sed etiam genere ferramentorum uincere consueuit. Primum omnium instruitur iaculis, quae nullae loricae, nulla possunt scuta sufferre.

25. However, the legion is accustomed to prevail not only in the number of soldiers but also in the kind of iron arms
to prevail. First of all it is equipped with javelins, which no cuirasses, no
shields can withstand.

Nam per singulas centurias singulas carroballistas habere consueuit, quibus muli ad trahendum et singula contubernia ad armandum uel dirigendum, hoc est undecim homines, deputantur. Hae quanto maiores fuerint, tanto longius ac fortius tela iaculantur. Non solum autem castra defendunt, uerum etiam in campo post aciem grauis armaturae ponuntur; ante quarum impetum nec equites loricati nec pedites scutati possunt hostium stare.

For each individual century it is accustomed to have a single carroballista, to which mules are assigned for hauling and an individual contubernium for arming or directing it—namely eleven men. The larger these are, the farther and more forcefully they hurl missiles. They not only defend the camp, but are also placed in the field behind the line of the heavy-armed; before whose onrush neither mailed horsemen nor shield-bearing infantry of the enemy are able to stand.

In una autem legione quinquaginta quinque carroballistae esse solent. Item decem onagri, hoc est singuli per singulas cohortes, in carpentis bubus portantur armati, ut, si forte hostes ad adpugnandum uenerint uallum, sagittis et saxis possint castra defendi. Scafas quoque de singulis trabibus excauatas cum longissimus funibus et interdum etiam ferreis catenis secum legio portat, quatenus contextis isdem, sicut dicunt, monoxylis, superiectis etiam tabulatis, flumina sine pontibus, quae uadari nequeunt, tam a peditibus quam ab equitatu sine periculo transeantur.

In one legion, moreover, there are wont to be fifty-five carroballistae. Likewise ten onagers, that is, one apiece for each cohort, are carried armed on wagons by oxen, so that, if by chance enemies should come to assault the rampart, the camp can be defended with arrows and stones. Skiffs too, hollowed out from single beams, the legion carries with it, with very long ropes and sometimes even iron chains, to the end that, these same, as they say, monoxyles, having been bound together, and with decking also thrown over, rivers without bridges, which cannot be forded, may be crossed without danger both by the infantry and by the cavalry.

habet ferreos harpagonas, quos lupos uocant, et falces ferreas confixas longissimis contis, item ad fossarum opera facienda bidentes ligones palas rutra alueos cofinos, quibus terra portetur. Habet quoque dolabras secures ascias serras, quibus materies ac pali dedolantur atque serrantur. Habet praeterea artifices cum omnibus ferramentis, qui ad obpugnandas hostium ciuitates testudines musculos arietes uineas, ut appellant, turres etiam ambulatorias faciunt.

it has iron grappling-hooks, which they call "wolves," and
iron sickles fastened to very long poles, likewise for making the works of ditches,
two-toothed mattocks, hoes, spades, shovels, troughs, baskets, by which earth may be carried. It has
also pickaxes, axes, adzes, saws, with which timber and stakes are pared down and
sawn. It has, moreover, craftsmen with all tools, who for
assaulting the enemy’s cities build tortoises, musculi, rams, vineae, as they call them,
and even make ambulatory towers.

Verum ne singula enumerando plura dicantur, uniuersa, quae in quocumque belli genere necessaria esse creduntur, secum legio debet ubique portare, ut, in quouis loco fixerit castra, armatam faciat ciuitatem.

But, lest more be said by enumerating particulars, the legion ought to carry with it everywhere all the things which are believed to be necessary in whatever genus of war, so that, in whatever place it has pitched camp, it may make an armed city.