Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] To all living beings Adam first assigned appellations, calling to each its name from the present institution in accordance with the condition of the nature which it was to serve.

[2] Gentes autem unicuique animalium ex propria lingua dederunt vocabula. Non autem secundum Latinam linguam atque Graecam aut quarumlibet gentium barbararum nomina illa inposuit Adam, sed illa lingua quae ante diluvium omnium una fuit, quae Hebraea nuncupatur.

[2] The peoples, however, gave to each of the animals names from their own tongue. Not, however, according to the Latin language and the Greek, or of any barbarian peoples, did Adam impose those names, but in that language which, before the deluge, was one for all, which is called Hebrew.

[3] Latine autem animalia sive animantia dicta, quod animentur vita et moveantur spiritu.

[3] But in Latin they are called animals or animate beings, because they are animated with life and moved by spirit.

[4] Quadrupedia vocata, quia quattuor pedibus gradiuntur: quae dum sint similia pecoribus, tamen sub cura humana non sunt; ut cervi, dammae, onagri, et cetera. Sed neque bestiae sunt, ut leones; neque iumenta, ut usus hominum iuvare possint.

[4] Called quadrupeds, because they go on four feet: which, although they are similar to cattle, nevertheless are not under human care; as deer, fallow-deer, onagers, and the rest. But they are neither beasts, like lions; nor yoke-animals (beasts of burden), so that they can aid human use.

[5] Pecus dicimus omne quod humana lingua et effigie caret. Proprie autem pecorum nomen his animalibus adcommodari solet quae sunt aut ad vescendum apta, ut oves et sues; aut in usu hominum commoda, ut equi et boves.

[5] We call pecus everything that lacks the human tongue and figure. Properly, however, the name of pecora is accustomed to be applied to those animals which are either apt for eating, such as sheep and swine; or advantageous for the use of human beings, such as horses and oxen.

[6] Differt autem inter pecora et pecudes: nam veteres communiter in significatione omnium animalium pecora dixerunt; pecudes autem tantum illa animalia quae eduntur, quasi pecuedes. Generaliter autem omne animal pecus a pascendo vocatum.

[6] There is, moreover, a difference between pecora and pecudes: for the ancients commonly used pecora in the signification of all animals; but pecudes only for those animals which are eaten, as if “pecu-eatables.” Generally, moreover, every animal is called pecus from pascendo, “pasturing.”

[7] Iumenta nomina inde traxerunt, quod nostrum laborem vel onus suo adiutorio subvectando vel arando iuvent. Nam bos carpenta trahit, et durissimas terrae glebas vomere vertit; equus et asinus portant onera, et hominum in gradiendo laborem temperant. Vnde et iumenta appellantur ab eo quod iuvent homines: sunt enim magnarum virium animalia.

[7] Beasts of burden drew their names from this, that they help our labor or load by bearing it with their aid, or by plowing. For the ox draws carriages, and with the ploughshare turns the very hard clods of earth; the horse and the donkey carry burdens, and lessen the labor of humans in going. Whence they are also called iumenta from the fact that they help humans: for they are animals of great strength.

[8] Item quoque armenta, vel quod sint apta armis, id est bello; vel quod his in armis utimur. Alii armenta tantum boves intellegunt, ab arando, quasi aramenta [vel quod sint cornibus armata]. Discretio est autem inter armenta et greges: nam armenta equorum et boum sunt, greges vero caprarum et ovium.

[8] Likewise also armenta, either because they are apt for arms, that is, for war; or because we use these in arms. Others understand armenta to mean only oxen, from plowing, as though aramenta [or because they are armed with horns]. There is, moreover, a distinction between armenta and flocks: for armenta are of horses and oxen, but flocks are of goats and sheep.

[9] Ovis molle pecus lanis, corpore inerme, animo placidum, ab oblatione dictum; eo quod apud veteres [in] initio non tauri, sed oves in sacrificio mactarentur. Ex his quasdam bidentes vocant, eas quae inter octo dentes duos altiores habent, quas maxime gentiles in sacrificium offerebant.

[9] The sheep, a soft herd for wools, unarmed in body, placid in spirit, is named from oblation; because among the ancients [in] the beginning not bulls, but sheep were slaughtered in sacrifice. Of these they call some bidentes, those which among eight teeth have two higher, which the Gentiles most especially used to offer in sacrifice.

[10] Vervex vel a viribus dictus, quod ceteris ovibus sit fortior; vel quod sit vir, id est masculus; vel quod vermem in capite habeat, quorum excitati pruritu invicem se concutiunt, et pugnantes cum magno impetu feriunt.

[10] Vervex is said either from strength, because it is stronger than the other sheep; or because it is a vir, that is, a male; or because it has a worm in the head, by whose itch excited they shake themselves mutually, and, fighting, they strike with great impetus.

[11] Aries vel APO TOU AREOS, id est a Marte, vocatus: unde apud nos in gregibus masculi mares dicuntur: sive quod hoc pecus a gentilibus primum aris est immolatum. Aries, quod inponeretur aris. Vnde est illud (Sedul. 1,115):

[11] Aries, either called APO TOU AREOS, that is, from Mars: whence among us, in flocks, the males are called “mares”; or because this herd-animal was first by the gentiles immolated on altars. “Aries,” because it is placed upon altars. Whence is that (Sedul. 1,115):

Aries mactatur ad aram.

A ram is immolated at the altar.

[12] Agnum quamquam et Graeci vocent APO TOU AGNOU, quasi pium, Latini autem ideo hoc nomen habere putant, eo quod prae ceteris animantibus matrem agnoscat; adeo ut etiam si in magno grege erraverit, statim balatu recognoscat vocem parentis.

[12] The lamb, although even the Greeks call it APO TOU AGNOU, as if “pious,” the Latins, however, think it has this name for this reason: because, beyond the rest of animate beings, it recognizes its mother; to such a degree that even if it has strayed in a great flock, at once by its bleating it recognizes the parent’s voice.

[13] Haedi ab edendo vocati. Parvi enim pinguissimi sunt et saporis iucundi, unde [et edere, unde] et edulium vocatur.

[13] Kids are named from eating. For when small they are very fat and of pleasant flavor, whence [and from edere, whence] even “edulium” is so called.

[14] Hircus lascivum animal et petulcum et fervens semper ad coitum; cuius oculi ob libidine in transversum aspiciunt, unde et nomen traxit. Nam hirqui sunt oculorum anguli secundum Suetonium (Prat. 171); cuius natura adeo calidissima est ut adamantem lapidem, quem nec ignis, nec ferri domare valet materia, solus huius cruor dissolvat.

[14] The he-goat is a lascivious animal, petulant, and always fervent for coitus; whose eyes, on account of libido, look sideways, whence it also drew its name. For “hirqui” are the angles of the eyes, according to Suetonius (Prat. 171); whose nature is so exceedingly hot that the adamant stone, which neither fire nor the matter of iron avails to tame, the gore of this creature alone dissolves.

Maiores hirci Cinyphii dicuntur a fluvio Cinyphe in Libya, ubi grandes nascuntur.

The larger he-goats are called Cinyphian from the river Cinyps in Libya, where great ones are born.

[15] Capros et capras a carpendis virgultis quidam dixerunt. Alii quod captent aspera. Nonnulli a crepitu crurum, unde eas crepas vocitatas; quae sunt agrestes caprae, quas Graeci pro eo quod acutissime videant, id est OKSUDERKESTERON, DORKA appellaverunt.

[15] Some have said that he-goats and she-goats are so called from plucking shrubs; others, because they catch at rough things. Some, from the crepitation of the legs, whence they are called crepas; these are wild goats, whom the Greeks, because they see most acutely—that is, OKSUDERKESTERON—have called DORKA.

Morantur enim in excelsis montibus, et quamvis de longinquo, vident tamen omnes qui veniunt.

For they dwell on lofty mountains, and although from afar, nevertheless they see all who come.

[16] Idem autem et capreae: idem ibices, quasi avices, eo quod ad instar avium ardua et excelsa teneant et in sublime inhabitent, ita ut de sublimitate vix humanis obtutibus pateant.

[16] The same, moreover, with the roe-deer; the same with the ibexes, as if “bird-like,” because, in the likeness of birds, they occupy steep and lofty places and inhabit aloft, such that from their loftiness they are scarcely laid open to human gazes.

[17] Vnde et meridiana pars ibices aves vocant, qui Nili fluentis inhabitant. Haec itaque animalia, ut diximus, in petris altissimis commorantur, et si quando ferarum vel hominum adversitatem persenserint, de altissimis saxorum cacuminibus sese praecipitantes in suis [se] cornibus inlaesa suscipiunt.

[17] Whence also the southern region calls the ibexes “birds,” those who inhabit the waters of the Nile. These animals therefore, as we have said, dwell on the loftiest rocks; and if ever they perceive the hostility of beasts or of men, hurling themselves headlong from the highest peaks of the rocks, they catch themselves uninjured on their own horns [themselves].

[18] Cervi dicti APO TON KERATON, id est a cornibus; KERATA enim Graece cornua dicuntur. Hi serpentium inimici cum se gravatos infirmitate persenserint, spiritu narium eos extrahunt de cavernis, et superata pernicie veneni eorum pabulo reparantur. Dictamnum herbam ipsi prodiderunt; nam eo pasti excutiunt acceptas sagittas.

[18] Deer are called APO TON KERATON, that is, “from the horns”; for KERATA in Greek are called “horns.” These, enemies of serpents, when they perceive themselves weighed down by infirmity, draw them out of their holes by the breath of their nostrils; and, the banefulness of their venom overcome, they are restored by feeding. They themselves revealed the herb dittany; for, having fed on it, they shake out the arrows they have received.

Mirantur autem sibilum fistularum.

They marvel, moreover, at the sibilance of pipes.

[19] Erectis auribus acute audiunt, summissis nihil. Si quando inmensa flumina vel maria transnatant, capita clunibus praecedentium superponunt sibique invicem succedentes nullum laborem ponderis sentiunt.

[19] With ears erected they hear acutely; with them lowered, nothing. If at any time they swim across immense rivers or seas, they place their heads upon the haunches of those preceding, and, succeeding one another in turn, they feel no labor of the weight.

[20] Tragelaphi a Graecis nominati, qui quum eadem specie sint ut cervi, villosos tamen habent armos ut hirci, et menta promissis hirta barbis, qui non alibi sunt quam circa Phasidem.

[20] Tragelaphi, named by the Greeks, who, although they are of the same species as deer, nevertheless have shaggy shoulders like goats, and chins rough with long, let-down beards, are found nowhere except around the Phasis.

[21] Hinnuli filii sunt cervorum [ab innuere dicti, quia ad nutum matris absconduntur].

[21] Fawns are the offspring of deer [so called from innuere, because at the nod of the mother they hide themselves].

[22] Dammula vocata, quod de manu effugiat: timidum animal et inbelle; de quo Martialis (13,94):

[22] Called a dammula, because it flees from the hand: a timid and unwarlike animal; about which Martial (13,94):

Dente timetur aper, defendunt cornua ccrvum;
inbelles damae quid nisi praeda sumus?

The boar is feared for its tooth; horns defend the stag;
we unwarlike fallow-deer—what are we if not prey?

[23] Lepus, levipes, quia velociter currit. Vnde et Graece pro cursu LAGOS dicitur; velox est enim animal et satis timidum.

[23] Hare, light-footed, because it runs swiftly. Whence also in Greek, on account of running, it is called LAGOS; for it is a swift animal and quite timid.

[24] Cuniculi genus agrestium animalium dicti quasi caniculi, eo quod canum indagine capiantur vel excludantur ab speluncis.

[24] Rabbits, a genus of field-animals, are called as though “caniculi”—little dogs—because by the encircling hunt of dogs they are captured, or are driven out from their burrows.

[25] Sus dicta, quod pascua subigat, id est terra subacta escas inquirat. Verres, quod grandes habeat vires. Porcus, quasi spurcus.

[25] Sus is so named because it subdues pastures, that is, with the earth subdued it seeks food. Verres, because it has great strength. Porcus, as if “filthy.”

Ingurgitat enim se caeno, luto inmergit, limo inlinit. Horatius (Epist. 1,2,26):

For he ingurgitates himself with filth, immerses himself in mud, smears himself with slime. Horace (Epistles 1,2,26):

Et amica luto sus.

And the sow, a friend to mud.

[26] Hinc etiam spurcitiam vel spurios nuncupatos. Porcorum pilos setas vocamus, et setas a sue dictas: a quibus et sutores vocantur, quod ex setis suant, id est consuant, pelles.

[26] Hence, too, filthiness or those called spurious are so named. We call the hairs of pigs bristles, and bristles are said to be named from the sow; whence also shoemakers are so called, because with bristles they suture, that is, sew together, hides.

[27] Aper a feritate vocatus, ablata F littera et subrogata P. Vnde et apud Graecos SUAGROS, id est ferus, dicitur. Omne enim, quod ferum est et inmite, abusive agreste vocamus.

[27] The boar (aper) is named from ferocity (feritas), the letter F having been removed and P substituted. Whence also among the Greeks SUAGROS, that is, fierce, it is called. For everything that is feral and harsh we call, by misusage, agrestic.

[28] Iuvencus dictus, quod iuvare incipiat hominum usus in colenda terra, vel quia apud gentiles Iovi semper ubique invencus inmolabatur, numquam taurus. Nam in victimis etiam aetas considerabatur. Taurus Graecum nomen est, sicut et hos.

[28] A juvencus is so called because it begins to help the use of men in cultivating the earth, or because among the gentiles a juvencus was always and everywhere immolated to Jove, never a bull. For in victims even age was considered. Taurus is a Greek name, just as also hos.

[29] Indicis tauris color fulvus est, volucris pernicitas, pilis in contrarium versis; caput circumflectunt flexibilitate qua volunt; tergi duritia omne telum respuunt inmiti feritate.

[29] For Indian bulls the color is fulvous, the swiftness bird-like, with hairs turned in the contrary direction; they bend the head around with whatever flexibility they wish; by the hardness of the hide they spit back every weapon, with immitigable ferocity.

[30] Bovem Graeci BOUN dicunt. Hunc Latini trionem vocant, eo quod terram terat, quasi terionem. Naevius (trag. 62):

[30] The Greeks call the ox BOUN. The Latins call this one trionem, because it wears down (grinds) the earth, as if “terionem.” Naevius (trag. 62):

Trionum hic moderator rusticus.

This rustic driver of the plough-oxen.

Cuius latitudo pellium a mento ad crura palearia dicuntur, a pelle ipsa, quasi pellearia; quod est generositatis in bove signum. Boum in sociis eximia pietas; nam alter alterum inquirit, cum quo ducere collo aratra consuevit, et frequenti mugitu pium testatur affectum si forte defecerit.

The breadth of the skins from the chin down to the shanks are called palearia, from the skin itself, as if pellearia; which is a sign of nobility in the ox. Among companions oxen show outstanding pietas; for the one seeks out the other, with whom he has been accustomed to draw the ploughs by the neck, and by frequent lowing he attests his pious affection if perchance it has failed (is missing).

[31] Vacca dicta, quasi boacca. Est enim ex qualitate mobilium nominum, sicut leo leaena, draco dracaena.

[31] The cow is called vacca, as if “boacca.” For it is from the quality of “mobile” nouns, just as leo—leaena, draco—dracaena (female dragon).

[32] Vitulus et vitula a viriditate vocati sunt, id est aetate viridi, sicut virgo. Vitulam ergo parvam esse et nondum enixam: nam enixa iuvenca est aut vacca.

[32] The calf and the she-calf are named from viridity, that is, from a green age, just like a virgin. Therefore a she-calf is small and not yet delivered; for once delivered she is a heifer or a cow.

[33] Bubali vocati per derivationem, quod sint similes boum; adeo indomiti ut prae feritate iugum cervicibus non recipiant.

[33] Bubali are so called by derivation, because they are similar to bovines; so indomitable that, by reason of ferocity, they do not receive the yoke upon their necks.

[34] Hos Africa procreat. Vri agrestes boves sunt in Germania, habentes cornua in tantum protensa ut regiis mensis insigni capacitate ex eis gerulae fiant. [Dicti uri APO TON OREON, id est a montibus.]

[34] Africa produces these. Uri are rustic cattle in Germany, having horns extended to such a degree that for royal tables flagons of remarkable capacity are made from them. [Called uri APO TON OREON, that is, from the mountains.]

[35] Camelis causa nomen dedit, sive quod quando onerantur, ut breviores et humiles fiant, accubant, quia Graeci CHAMAI humile et breve dicunt; sive quia curvus est dorso. KAMOUR enim verbo Graeco curvum significat. Hos licet et aliae regiones mittant, sed Arabia plurimos.

[35] The reason for the name has been given for camels, either because, when they are laden, they crouch down so that they become shorter and low, since the Greeks say CHAMAI for “low” and “short”; or because it is curved in the back. For KAMOUR, in the Greek word, signifies “curved.” Though other regions also supply them, Arabia supplies very many.

Differunt autem sibi; nam Arabici bina tubera in dorso habent, reliquarum regionum singula.

They differ, however, among themselves; for the Arabian camels have two humps on the back, those of the other regions a single one.

[36] Dromeda genus camelorum est, minoris quidem staturae, sed velocioris. Vnde et nomen habet; nam DROMOS Graece cursus et velocitas appellatur. Centum enim et amplius milia uno die pergere solet.

[36] The dromedary is a kind of camel, indeed of smaller stature, but of swifter speed. Whence also it has its name; for dromos in Greek is called “course” and “velocity.” For it is accustomed to go one hundred and more miles in a single day.

Quod animal, sicut bos et ovis et camelus, ruminat.

This animal, like the ox and the sheep and the camel, ruminates.

[37] Ruminatio autem dicta [est] a ruma, eminente gutturis parte, per quam dimissus cibus a certis revocatur animalibus.

[37] Rumination, moreover, is said [to be] from ruma, the projecting part of the throat, through which the food sent down is recalled in certain animals.

[38] Asinus et asellus a sedendo dictus, quasi asedus: sed hoc nomen, quod magis equis conveniebat, ideo hoc animal sumpsit quia priusquam equos caperent homines, huic praesidere coeperunt. Animal quippe tardum et nulla ratione renitens, statim ut voluit sibi homo substravit.

[38] The ass and the little ass are said to be named from sitting, as though “asedus”; but this name, which suited horses more, this animal took because, before men took to horses, they began to sit upon this one. For it is a slow animal and in no way resisting, and at once, whenever a man wished, he laid it under himself as a seat.

[39] Onager interpretatur asinus ferus. ONON quippe Graeci asinum vocant: AGRION ferum. Hos Africa habet magnos et indomitos et in deserto vagantes.

[39] Onager is interpreted as a wild ass. For the Greeks call the ass ONON: AGRION, wild. Africa has these large and untamed, and wandering in the desert.

Singuli autem feminarum gregibus praesunt. Nascentibus masculis zelant et testiculos eorum morsu detruncant, quod caventes matres eos in secretis locis occultant.

Single individuals, however, preside over the herds of females. When males are born, they are jealous and truncate their testicles by a bite, for which reason the mothers, being cautious, hide them in secret places.

[40] Asinos Arcadicos dictos, eo quod ab Arcadia primum vecti sunt magni et alti. Minor autem asellus agro plus necessarius est, quia et laborem tolerat et neglegentiam propemodum non recusat.

[40] Asses called Arcadian, because from Arcadia they were first conveyed, large and tall. But the smaller ass is more necessary for the field, because he both tolerates labor and almost does not refuse negligence.

[41] Equi dicti, eo quod quando quadrigis iungebantur, aequabantur, paresque forma et similes cursu copulabantur.

[41] Horses are so named, because when they were yoked to four-horse chariots, they were equalized, and were coupled as equals in form and similar in running.

[42] Caballus antea cabo dictus, propter quod gradiens ungula inpressa terram concavet, quod reliqua animalia non habent.

[42] The caballus was formerly called “cabo,” because, as it goes, with its hoof impressed it hollows the earth—a thing which the other animals do not have.

[43] Inde et sonipes, quod pedibus sonat. Vivacitas equorum multa: exultant enim in campis; odorantur bellum; excitantur sono tubae ad proelium; voce accensi ad cursum provocantur; dolent cum victi fuerint; exultant cum vicerint. Quidam hostes in bello sentiunt, adeo ut adversarios morsu petant: aliqui etiam proprios dominos recognoscunt, obliti mansuetudinis si mutentur; aliqui praeter dominum dorso nullum recipiunt: interfectis vel morientibus dominis multi lacrimas fundunt.

[43] Hence also “sonipes,” because it sounds with its feet. The livacity of horses is manifold: they exult in the fields; they scent war; they are excited by the sound of the trumpet to battle; inflamed by the voice they are provoked to the course; they grieve when they have been defeated; they exult when they have conquered. Certain ones perceive enemies in war, to such a degree that they seek their adversaries with a bite; some even recognize their own masters, forgetting gentleness if they are changed; some admit no one upon the back except the master; when their masters have been slain or are dying, many pour out tears.

Solum enim equum propter hominem lacrimare et doloris affectum sentire. Vnde [et] in Centauris equorum et hominum natura permixta est.

For only the horse, on account of man, weeps and feels the affect of pain. Whence [also] in the Centaurs the nature of horses and of men is intermixed.

[44] Solent etiam ex equorum vel maestitia vel alacritate eventum futurum dimicaturi colligere. Aetas longaeva equis Persicis, Hunnicis, Epirotis ac Siculis in annis ultra quinquaginta, brevior autem Hispanis ac Numidis et Gallicis frequens opinio est.

[44] Those about to contend in battle are also accustomed to gather the future event from the sadness or alacrity of horses. It is a common opinion that the life-span of Persian, Hunnic, Epirote, and Sicilian horses is in years beyond fifty, but shorter for Spanish, Numidian, and Gallic.

[45] In generosis equis, ut aiunt veteres, quattuor spectantur: forma, pulchritudo, meritum atque color. Forma, ut sit validum corpus et solidum, robori conveniens altitudo, latus longum, substrictus maxime et rotundi clunis, pectus late patens, corpus omne musculorum densitate nodosum, pes siccus et cornu concavo solidatus.

[45] In well-born horses, as the ancients say, four things are observed: form, beauty, merit, and color. Form: that the body be sturdy and solid, a height suitable to vigor, a long flank, very tucked-up in the belly and with a rounded haunch, a chest broadly open, the whole body knotted with the density of the muscles, a dry foot and consolidated by concave horn.

[46] Pulchritudo, ut sit exiguum caput et siccum, pelle prope ossibus adhaerente, aures breves et argutae, oculi magni, nares patulae, erecta cervix, coma densa et cauda, ungularum soliditatis fixa rotunditas.

[46] Pulchritude, that the head be small and dry, the skin adhering close to the bones, the ears short and acute, the eyes large, the nostrils patulous, the neck erect, a dense mane and tail, a fixed roundness in the solidity of the hooves.

[47] Meritum, ut sit animo audax, pedibus alacer, trementibus membris, quod est fortitudinis indicium: quique ex summa quiete facile concitetur, vel excitata festinatione non difficile teneatur. Motus autem equi in auribus intellegitur, virtus in membris trementibus.

[47] Merit: that it be bold in spirit, lively in its feet, with trembling limbs—which is an indication of fortitude; and that it can be easily roused from the utmost quiet, yet, when haste has been excited, is not difficult to restrain. Moreover, a horse’s movement is understood in the ears, its prowess in the trembling limbs.

[48] Color hic praecipue spectandus: badius, aureus, roseus, myrteus, cervinus, gilvus, glaucus, scutulatus, canus, candidus, albus, guttatus, niger. Sequenti autem ordine, varius ex nigro badioque distinctus; reliquus varius color vel cinereus deterrimus.

[48] Color here is to be especially observed: bay, golden, rosy, myrtle-colored, cervine, gilvous, glaucous, scutulate, hoary, candid, white, speckled, black. But in the following order: variegated, marked with black and bay; the remaining variegated color, or ashen-gray, is the worst.

[49] Badium autem antiqui vadium dicebant, quod inter cetera animalia fortius vadat. Ipse est et spadix, quem phoenicatum vocant: et dictus spadix a colore palmae, quam Siculi spadicam vocant.

[49] As for Badium (bay), the ancients used to say vadium, because among the other animals it goes more strongly. It is also spadix, which they call phoenicatus; and spadix is so called from the color of the palm, which the Sicilians call spadicam.

[50] Glaucus vero est veluti pictos oculos habens et quodam splendore perfusos. Nam glaucum veteres dixerunt. Gilvus autem melinus color est subalbidus.

[50] Glaucous, in truth, is as if having painted eyes and perfused with a certain splendor; for “glaucum” is what the ancients said. Gilvus, however, is a honey-colored hue, somewhat whitish.

Guttatus, albus nigris intervenientibus punctis.

Guttatus, white with black intervening dots.

[51] Candidus autem et albus invicem sibi differunt. Nam albus cum quodam pallore est: candidus vero niveus et pura luce perfusus. Canus dictus, quia ex candido colore et nigro est.

[51] But candid and albus differ from each other. For albus is with a certain pallor: candid, however, is snowy and suffused with pure light. Canus is so called, because it is from the candid color and black.

Scutulatus vocatus propter orbes, quos habent candidos inter purpuras.

Scutulated, so called on account of the orbs, which they have white amid the purples.

[52] Varius, quod vias habeat colorum inparium. Qui autem albos tantum pedes habent, petili appellantur; qui frontem albam, calidi.

[52] Variegated, because it has stripes of unequal colors. But those who have only white feet are called petili; those who have a white forehead, calidi.

[53] Cervinus est quem vulgo guaranen dicunt. Aeranen idem vulgus vocat, quod in modum aerei sit coloris. Myrteus autem est pressus in purpura.

[53] It is cervine, which in the common tongue they call guaranen. The same folk call it aeranen, because it is in the manner of an aereous color. Myrtle-colored, however, is pressed into purple.

[54] Dosina autem dictus, quod sit color eius de asino: idem et cinereus. Sunt autem hi de agresti genere orti, quos equiferos dicimus, et proinde ad urbanam dignitatem transire non possunt.

[54] Dosina, however, is so called because its color is from the donkey: the same as cinereous. Moreover, these are sprung from a rustic stock, whom we call equiferous, and accordingly are not able to pass over to urban dignity.

[55] Mauron niger est; nigrum enim Graeci MAURON vocant. Mannus vero equus brevior [est], quem vulgo brunicum vocant. Veredos antiqui dixerunt, quod veherent redas, id est ducerent; vel quod vias publicas currant, per quas et redas ire solitum erat.

[55] Mauron is black; for the Greeks call black MAURON. A mannas, indeed, [is] a shorter horse, which in the vulgar tongue they call brunicum. The ancients called them veredos, because they conveyed carriages (redae), that is, drew them; or because they run on the public roads, along which redae too were accustomed to go.

[56] Equorum tria sunt genera: unum generosum, proeliis et oneribus aptum; alterum vulgare atque gregarium ad vehendum, non ad equitandum aptum; tertium ex permixtione diversi generis ortum, quod etiam dicitur bigenerum quia ex diversis nascitur, ut mulus.

[56] There are three genera of horses: one well-bred, apt for battles and burdens; a second, common and gregarious, apt for conveying, not for riding; a third, arisen from a commixture of a different kind, which is also called bigenerate because it is born from diverse stocks, like the mule.

[57] Mulus autem a Graeco tractum vocabulum habet. Graece enim hoc vel quod iugo pistorum subactus tardas molendo ducat in gyro molas. Iudaei asserunt quod Ana abnepos Esau equarum greges ab asinis in deserto ipse fecerit primus ascendi, ut mulorum inde nova contra naturam animalia nascerentur.

[57] The mule, however, has a term drawn from Greek. For in Greek this is so called either because, subjugated beneath the bakers’ yoke, by grinding it leads the slow millstones in a gyre. The Jews assert that Anah, the great-grandson of Esau, himself was the first in the desert to have herds of mares mounted by asses, so that from there new animals against nature, mules, might be born.

Onagros quoque ad hoc admissos esse ad asinas: et ipsum istiusmodi repperisse concubitum, ut velocissimi ex his asini nascerentur.

That onagers too were admitted for this to she-asses: and that he himself discovered such a kind of mating, so that the swiftest asses might be born from these.

[58] Industria quippe humana diversum animal in coitu coegit, sicque adulterina commixtione genus aliud repperit; sicut et Iacob contra naturam colorum similitudines procuravit. Nam tales foetus oves illius concipiebant, quales umbras arietum desuper ascendentium in aquarum speculo contemplabantur.

[58] For human industry indeed has compelled a different animal to coitus, and thus by adulterine commixtion discovered another kind; just as Jacob, against nature, procured likenesses of colors. For his ewes conceived such offspring as the shadows of the rams mounting above them they beheld in the mirror of the waters.

[59] Denique et hoc ipsud in equarum gregibus fieri fertur, ut generosos obiciant equos visibus concipientium, quo eorum similes concipere et creare possint. Nam et columbarum dilectores depictas ponunt pulcherrimas columbas isdem locis, quibus illae versantur, quo rapiente visu similes generent.

[59] Finally, this very thing is also said to occur in herds of mares: that they set before the eyes of those conceiving noble horses, so that they may be able to conceive and create their likes. For even lovers of doves place painted, most beautiful doves in the very places where they frequent, so that, the sight seizing them, they may beget similar offspring.

[60] Inde est quod quidam gravidas mulieres iubent nullos intueri turpissimos animalium vultus, ut cynocephalos et simios, ne visibus occurrentes similes foetus pariant. Hanc enim feminarum esse naturam ut quales perspexerint sive mente conceperint in extremo voluptatis aestu, dum concipiunt, talem et sobolem procreent. Etenim animal in usu Venerio formas extrinsecus intus transmittit, eorumque satiata typis rapit species eorum in propriam qualitatem.

[60] Hence it is that certain people bid pregnant women to look upon none of the most hideous faces of animals, such as cynocephali and apes, lest, meeting their eyes, they bear fetuses like them. For this is the nature of women: that what sort they have clearly looked upon, or conceived in mind, at the extreme surge of pleasure, while they are conceiving, such a progeny they also beget. For indeed the animal in venereal use transmits forms from without to within, and, satiated with their types, it seizes their species into its own quality.

In animantibus bigenera dicuntur quae ex diversis nascuntur, ut mulus ex equa et asino; burdo ex equo et asina; hybridae ex apris et porcis; tityrus ex ove et hirco; musmo ex capra et ariete. Est autem dux gregis.

Among living creatures, those are called bi-generic which are born from different kinds, as: the mule from a mare and a donkey; the hinny from a horse and a she-ass; hybrids from boars and pigs; the tityrus from a ewe and a he-goat; the musmon from a she-goat and a ram. Moreover, it is the leader of the flock.

II. DE BESTIIS.

2. ON BEASTS.

[1] Bestiarum vocabulum proprie convenit leonibus, pardis, tigribus, lupis et vulpibus canibusque et simiis ac ceteris, quae vel ore vel unguibus saeviunt, exceptis serpentibus. Bestiae dictae a vi, qua saeviunt.

[1] The term of beasts properly fits lions, leopards, tigers, wolves and foxes and dogs and apes, and the rest that are savage either with the mouth or with claws, serpents excepted. Beasts are said to be so called from the force with which they rage.

[2] Ferae appellatae, eo quod naturali utuntur libertate et desiderio suo ferantur. Sunt enim liberae eorum voluntates, et huc atque illuc vagantur et quo animus duxerit, eo feruntur.

[2] Wild beasts are appellated thus, because they make use of natural liberty and are borne along by their own desire. For their wills are free, and they wander hither and thither, and whither the spirit leads, thither they are carried.

[3] Leonis vocabulum ex Graeca origine inflexum est in Latinum. Graece enim LEON vocatur; et est nomen nothum, quia ex parte corruptum. Leaena vero totum Graecum est, sicut et dracaena.

[3] The vocable “lion” has been inflected from Greek origin into Latin. For in Greek it is called LEON; and it is a nothus name, because in part corrupted. Leaena, however, is wholly Greek, just as also dracaena.

Vt autem leaena lea dicatur usurpatum est a poetis. Leo autem Graece, Latine rex interpretatur, eo quod princeps sit omnium bestiarum. Cuius genus trifarium dicitur.

But that the lioness be called lea is a usage adopted by the poets. Moreover, leo is Greek; in Latin it is interpreted as rex (“king”), because he is the prince of all beasts. His kind is said to be threefold.

[4] E quibus breves et iuba crispa inbelles sunt; longi et coma simplici acres. Animos eorum frons et cauda indicat. Virtus eorum in pectore; firmitas in capite.

[4] Of these, the short ones and with a crisp mane are unwarlike; the long ones and with simple hair are fierce. Their spirit is indicated by the forehead and the tail. Their virtue is in the breast; their firmness is in the head.

Septi a venatoribus terram contuentur, qno minus conspectis venabulis terreantur. Rotarum timent strepitus, sed ignes magis.

Hemmed in by hunters, they gaze at the ground, so that, not seeing the hunting-spears, they may be less terrified. They fear the clatter of wheels, but fires even more.

[5] Cum dormierint, vigilant oculi; cum ambulant, cauda sua cooperiunt vestigia sua, ne eos venator inveniat. Cum genuerint catulum, tribus diebus et tribus noctibus catulus dormire fertur; tunc deinde patris fremitu vel rugitu veluti tremefactus cubilis locus suscitare dicitur catulum dormientem.

[5] When they have slept, their eyes keep watch; when they walk, with their tail they cover their own footprints, lest the hunter find them. When they have borne a cub, for three days and three nights the cub is said to sleep; then thereafter, the father’s roaring or bellowing is said to rouse the sleeping cub, as if the very place of the lair were made to tremble.

[6] Circa hominem leonum natura est ut nisi laesi nequeant irasci. Patet enim eorum misericordia exemplis assiduis. Prostratis enim parcunt; captivos obvios repatriare permittunt; hominem non nisi in magna fame interimunt. De quibus Lucretius (5,1035):

[6] With respect to man, the nature of lions is such that, unless harmed, they cannot grow angry. For their mercy is evident by continual examples. For they spare the prostrate; they allow captives whom they meet to repatriate; they kill a man only in great hunger. About which Lucretius (5,1035):

Scymnique leonum.

And the lion-cubs.

[7] Tigris vocata propter volucrem fugam; ita enim nominant Persae et Medi sagittam. Est enim bestia variis distincta maculis, virtute et velocitate mirabilis; ex cuius nomine flumen Tigris appellatur, quod is rapidissimus sit omnium fluviorum. Has magis Hyrcania gignit.

[7] The tiger is so called on account of its winged flight; for thus the Persians and the Medes name an arrow. For it is a beast marked with various spots, marvelous in virtue and velocity; from its name the river Tigris is called, because it is the most rapid of all rivers. Hyrcania produces these more abundantly.

[8] Panther dictus, sive quod omnium animalium sit amicus, excepto dracone, sive quia et sui generis societate gaudet et ad eandem similitudinem quicquid accipit reddit. PAN enim Graece omne dicitur. Bestia minutis orbiculis superpicta, ita ut oculatis ex fulvo circulis, nigra vel alba distinguatur varietate.

[8] Panther, so called either because it is a friend of all animals, except the dragon, or because it also rejoices in the society of its own kind and renders to the same similitude whatever it receives. For in Greek PAN is said “all.” A beast over-painted with minute little circles, such that, with eye-like circles of tawny color, it is distinguished by a variegation, black or white.

[9] Haec semel omnino parturit; cuius causae ratio manifesta est. Nam cum in utero matris coaluere catuli maturisque ad nascendum viribus pollent, odiunt temporum moras; itaque oneratam foetibus vulvam tamquam obstantem partui unguibus lacerant: effundit illa partum, seu potius dimittit, dolore cogente. Ita postea corruptis et cicatricosis sedibus genitale semen infusum non haeret acceptum, sed inritum resilit.

[9] This creature gives birth only once altogether; the rationale of this cause is manifest. For when in the uterus of the mother the cubs have coalesced and, mature, are strong for being born, they detest delays of times; and so they lacerate with their claws the vulva burdened with fetuses, as though it stood in the way of parturition: she pours out the birth, or rather lets it go, pain compelling. Thus thereafter, with the seats corrupted and cicatricial, the genital seed poured in does not adhere when received, but rebounds, ineffectual.

Nam Plinius (N. H. 8,43) dicit animalia cum acutis unguibus frequentur parere non posse; vitiantur enim intrinsecus se moventibus catulis.

For Pliny (Natural History 8.43) says that animals with sharp claws are not able to give birth frequently; for they are vitiated on the inside by the cubs moving themselves.

[10] Pardus secundus post pantherem est, genus varium ac velocissimum et praeceps ad sanguinem. Saltu enim ad mortem ruit.

[10] The pard is second after the panther, a variegated and most swift kind, and headlong toward blood. For by a leap it rushes to death.

[11] Leopardus ex adulterio leaenae et pardi nascitur, et tertiam originem efficit; sicut et Plinius in Naturali Historia (8,42) dicit, leonem cum parda, aut pardum cum leaena concumbere et ex utroque coitu degeneres partus creari, ut mulus et burdo.

[11] The leopard is born from the adulterous union of a lioness and a pard, and constitutes a third origin; just as also Pliny in the Natural History (8,42) says that a lion with a parda, or a pard with a lioness, lie together, and from either union degenerate offspring are created, like the mule and the hinny.

[12] Rhinoceron a Graecis vocatus. Latine interpretatur in nare cornu. Idem et monoceron, id est unicornus, eo quod unum cornu in media fronte habeat pedum quattuor ita acutum et validum ut quidquid inpetierit, aut ventilet aut perforet.

[12] Called Rhinoceros by the Greeks. In Latin it is interpreted “horn on the nose.” The same is also monoceros, that is unicorn, because it has one horn in the middle of the forehead, four feet long, so sharp and strong that whatever it attacks, it either tosses or pierces.

Nam et cum elephantis saepe certamen habet, et in ventre vulneratum prosternit.

For also it often has a contest with elephants, and, having wounded them in the belly, prostrates them.

[13] Tantae autem esse fortitudinis ut nulla venantium virtute capiatur; sed, sicut asserunt qui naturas animalium scripserunt, virgo puella praeponitur, quae venienti sinum aperit, in quo ille omni ferocitate deposita caput ponit, sicque soporatus velut inermis capitur.

[13] Moreover, it is of such fortitude that it is taken by no prowess of hunters; but, as those assert who have written the natures of animals, a maiden girl is set before it, who opens her lap to the one coming, in which he, with all ferocity laid aside, places his head, and thus, lulled to sleep, as if unarmed, he is captured.

[14] Elephantum Graeci a magnitudine corporis vocatum putant, quod formam montis praeferat; Graece enim mons LOFOS dicitur. Apud Indos autem a voce barro vocatur; unde et vox eius barritus, et dentes ebur. Rostrum autem proboscida dicitur, quoniam illo pabulum ori admovet; et est angui similis, vallo munitus eburno.

[14] The Greeks think the elephant is so called from the magnitude of its body, because it bears the form of a mountain; for in Greek a mountain is called LOFOS. Among the Indians, however, it is called by the word barro; whence also its voice is barritus, and its teeth are ivory. The snout, moreover, is called the proboscis, since with it he brings fodder to his mouth; and it is like a snake, fortified with an ivory palisade.

[15] Hos boves Lucas dictos ab antiquis Romanis: boves, quia nullum animal grandius videbant: Lucas, quia in Lucania illos primus Pyrrhus in proelio obiecit Romanis. Nam hoc genus animantis in rebus bellicis aptum est; in eis enim Persae et Indi ligneis turribus conlocatis, tamquam de muro iaculis dimicant. Intellectu autein et memoria multa vigent.

[15] These oxen were called Lucas by the ancient Romans: “oxen,” because they saw no animal grander; “Lucas,” because in Lucania Pyrrhus first set them against the Romans in battle. For this kind of animal is apt for war-matters; for the Persians and the Indians, having placed wooden towers upon them, fight with javelins as if from a wall. In intellect and in memory, moreover, they are vigorous in many things.

[16] Gregatim incedunt; motu, quo valent, salutant; murem fugiunt; aversi coeunt; quando autem parturiunt, in aquis vel insulis dimittunt fetus propter dracones, quia inimici sunt et ab eis inplicati necantur; biennio autem portant fetus, nec amplius quam semel gignunt nec plures, sed tantum unum; vivunt [autem] annos trecentos. Apud solam Africam et Indiam elephanti prius nascebantur; nunc sola eos India gignit.

[16] They proceed gregariously; with such motion as they are able, they salute; they flee the mouse; turned away, they cohabit; but when they give birth, they deliver the fetus in waters or on islands on account of dragons, because they are enemies and, being entangled by them, are killed; moreover, they carry the fetus for 2 years, and they beget not more than once nor more, but only one; they live 300 years. Among only Africa and India elephants were formerly born; now only India begets them.

[17] Grypes vocatur, quod sit animal pinnatum et quadrupes. Hoc genus ferarum in Hyperboreis nascitur montibus. Omni parte corporis leones sunt; alis et facie aquilis similes; equis vehementer infesti.

[17] The gryphon is so called, because it is a winged animal and a quadruped. This kind of wild beast is born in the Hyperborean mountains. In every part of the body they are lions; in wings and face they are like eagles; they are vehemently hostile to horses.

Nam et homines visos discerpunt.

For they even tear to pieces men they see.

[18] Chamaeleon non habet unum colorem, sed diversa est varietate consparsus, ut pardus. Dictus autem ita ä Huius chamaeleontis corpusculum ad colores quos videt facillima conversione variatur, quod aliorum animalium non est ita ad conversionem facilis corpulentia.

[18] The chameleon does not have one color, but is sprinkled with diverse variegation, like a leopard. But it is thus named: The chameleon’s little body is altered to the colors which it sees with the easiest conversion, whereas the corpulence of other animals is not so easy for conversion.

[19] Camelopardus dictus, quod dum sit ut pardus albis maculis superaspersus, collo equo similis, pedibus bubulis, capite tamen camelo est similis. Hunc Aethiopia gignit.

[19] The camelopard is so called, because, while it is like a pard, oversprinkled with white spots, in neck it is similar to a horse, in feet ox-like, yet in head it is similar to a camel. Ethiopia produces this.

[20] Lyncis dictus, quia in luporum genere numeratur; bestia maculis terga distincta ut pardus, sed similis lupo: unde et ille LUKOS, iste lyncis. Huius urinam convertere in duritiam pretiosi lapidis dicunt, qui lyncurius appellatur, quod et ipsas lynces sentire hoc documento probatur. Nam egestum liquorem harenis, in quantum potuerint, contegunt, invidia quadam naturae ne talis egestio transeat in usum humanum.

[20] Called lynx, because it is numbered in the genus of wolves; a beast whose back is marked with spots like a pard, but similar to a wolf: whence that one is “lykos,” this one “lynx.” They say its urine is converted into the hardness of a precious stone, which is called lyncurius, and by this proof it is shown that the lynxes themselves are aware of it. For they cover the discharged liquid with sands, as far as they can, by a kind of envy of nature, lest such an excretion pass into human use.

Lynces dicit Plinius Secundus (cf. N. H. 8,43) extra unum non admittere fetum.

Pliny Secundus (cf. N. H. 8,43) says that lynxes do not admit offspring beyond one.

[21] Castores a castrando dicti sunt. Nam testiculi eorum apti sunt medicaminibus, propter quos cum praesenserint venatorem, ipsi se castrant et morsibus vires suas amputant. De quibus Cicero in Scauriana (2,7): 'Redimunt se ea parte corporis, propter quod maxime expetuntur.' Iuvenalis (12,34):

[21] Beavers are so called from castrating. For their testicles are fit for medicaments, on account of which, when they have sensed in advance a hunter, they castrate themselves and with their bites cut off their own virility. About which Cicero in the Scauriana (2,7): 'They ransom themselves with that part of the body on account of which they are most especially sought.' Iuvenalis (12,34):

Qui se
eunuchum ipse facit, cupiens evadere damno
testiculi.

Who
makes himself a eunuch, desiring to evade the loss
of a testicle.

[22] Ipsi sunt et fibri, qui etiam Pontici canes vocantur. Vrsus fertur dictus quod ore suo formet fetus, quasi orsus. Nam aiunt eos informes generare partus, et carnem quandam nasci quam mater lambendo in membra conponit. Vnde est illud:

[22] They themselves are also “fibri,” who are also called Pontic dogs. The bear is said to be so named because with its mouth it forms its fetuses, as if “orsus.” For they say they generate formless births, and that a certain flesh is born which the mother, by licking, puts together into limbs. Whence is that saying:

Sic format lingua fetum cum protulit ursa.

Thus the she-bear shapes the fetus with her tongue when she has brought it forth.

Sed hoc inmaturitas partus facit: denique tricesimo die generat. Vnde evenit ut praecipitata fecunditas informes procreet. Vrsorum caput invalidum; vis maxima in brachiis et lumbis; unde interdum erecti insistunt.

But the immaturity of the birth brings this about: indeed she gives birth on the thirtieth day. Whence it comes about that precipitate fecundity procreates formless young. The head of bears is infirm; the greatest force is in the arms and the loins; whence sometimes they stand erect.

[23] Lupus Graeca derivatione in linguam nostram transfertur. Lupos enim illi LUKOUS dicunt: LUKOS autem Graece a moribus appellatur, quod rabie rapacitatis quaequae invenerit trucidet. Alii lupos vocatos aiunt quasi leopos, quod quasi leonis, ita sit illi virtus in pedibus; unde et quidquid pede presserit non vivit.

[23] The wolf is transferred into our language by Greek derivation. For they call wolves LUKOUS: and LUKOS in Greek is named from character, because, with a madness of rapacity, it slaughters whatever it has found. Others say wolves are called as if “leopos,” because, as of a lion, so there is in it power in the feet; whence also whatever it has pressed with its foot does not live.

[24] Rapax autem bestia et cruoris appetens; de quo rustici aiunt vocem hominem perdere, si eum lupus prior viderit. Vnde et subito tacenti dicitur: 'Lupus in fabula.' Certe si se praevisum senserit, deponit feritatis audaciam. Lupi toto anno non amplius dies duodecim coeunt; famem diu portant, et post longa ieiunia multum devorant.

[24] Moreover, a rapacious beast and appetent of gore; about which the rustics say that a man loses his voice, if a wolf has seen him first. Whence also to one suddenly falling silent it is said: 'Wolf in the story.' Surely, if it perceives itself to have been seen beforehand, it lays aside the audacity of ferocity. Wolves in the whole year do not mate more than 12 days; they bear hunger for a long time, and after long fasts they devour much.

Lupos Aethiopia mittit cervice iubatos, et tanto varios ut nullum colorem illis abesse dicant.

Ethiopia sends forth wolves maned at the neck, and so variegated that they say no color is absent to them.

[25] Canis nomen Latinum Graecam etymologiam habere videtur; Graece enim KUON dicitur. Licet eum quidam a canore latratus appellatum existiment, eo quod insonat; unde et canere. Nihil autem sagacius canibus; plus enim sensus ceteris animalibus habent.

[25] The Latin name canis seems to have a Greek etymology; for in Greek it is called KUON. Yet some think it is named from the canor of its barking, because it sounds/resounds; whence also “to sing,” canere. Nothing, however, is more sagacious than dogs; for they have more sense than the other animals.

[26] Namque soli sua nomina recognoscunt; dominos suos diligunt; dominorum tecta defendunt; pro dominis suis se morti obiciunt; voluntarie cum domino ad praedam currunt; corpus domini sui etiam mortuum non relinquunt. Quorum postremo naturae est extra homines esse non posse. In canibus duo sunt: aut fortitudo, aut velocitas.

[26] For they alone recognize their own names; they love their masters; they defend their masters’ roofs; for their masters they expose themselves to death; they run voluntarily with the master to the prey; they do not abandon their master’s body even when dead. Finally, their nature is that they cannot be apart from humans. In dogs there are two things: either fortitude or velocity.

[27] Catuli abusive dicuntur quarumlibet bestiarum filii. Nam proprie catuli canum sunt, per diminutionem dicti.

[27] Whelps are abusively said of the offspring of any beasts whatsoever; for properly whelps are of dogs, so called by diminution (i.e., a diminutive).

[28] Lycisci autem dicuntur, ut ait Plinius (cf. 8,148), canes nati ex lupis et canibus, cum inter se forte miscuntur. Solent et Indi feminas canes noctu in silvis alligatas admitti ad tigres bestias, a quibus insiliri, et nasci ex eodem foetu canes adeo acerrimos et fortes ut in conplexu leones prosternant.

[28] Lyciscs, moreover, are, as Pliny says (cf. 8,148), dogs born from wolves and dogs, when by chance they are mingled with one another. The Indians too are wont to have female dogs, tied at night in the woods, admitted to tigers, by whom they are leapt upon, and from the same litter are born dogs so very fierce and strong that in the embrace they prostrate lions.

[29] Vulpes dicta, quasi volupes. Est enim volubilis pedibus, et numquam rectis itineribus, sed tortuosis anfractibus currit, fraudulentum animal insidiisque decipiens. Nam dum nun habuerit escam, fingit mortem, sicque descendentes quasi ad cadaver aves rapit et devorat.

[29] The fox is called, as it were, “volupes.” For it is voluble on its feet, and it never runs by straight paths, but by tortuous anfractuosities, a fraudulent animal deceiving by ambushes. For when it does not have food, it feigns death, and thus it snatches and devours birds descending as if to a corpse.

[30] Simiae Graecum nomen est, id est pressis naribus; unde et simias dicimus, quod suppressis naribus sint et facie foeda, rugis turpiter follicantibus; licet et capellarum sit pressum habere nasum. Alii simias Latino sermone vocatos urbitrantur, eo quod multa in eis similitudo rationis humanae sentitur; sed falsum est.

[30] Simiae is a Greek name, that is, “with pressed nares”; whence we also call them simias, because they have suppressed nostrils and a foul face, with wrinkles shamefully puckering; although it is also characteristic of she-goats to have a pressed nose. Others think that simias are so called in Latin speech, for the reason that much in them a similitude of human reason is perceived; but it is false.

[31] Hi elementorum sagaces nova luna exultant, media et cava tristantur. Fetus, quos amant, ante se gestant; neglecti circa matrem haerent. Horum genera quinque sunt, ex quibus cercopitheci caudas habent; simia enim cum cauda est, quam quidam cluram vocant.

[31] These, sagacious of the elements, exult at the new moon; at the middle and the hollow (phases) they are saddened. The offspring whom they love they carry before them; the neglected cling around the mother. There are five kinds of these, of which the cercopitheci have tails; for a monkey is with a tail, which some call the clura.

[32] Sphingae villosae sunt comis, mammis prominentibus, dociles ad feritatis oblivionem. Cynocephali et ipsi similes simiis, sed facie ad modum canis; unde et nuncupati.

[32] Sphinxes are shaggy with locks, with prominent breasts, teachable unto the oblivion of ferocity. The Cynocephali likewise are similar to monkeys, but in face after the manner of a dog; whence also they are named.

[33] Satyri facie admodum grata, et gesticulatis motibus inquieti. Callitriches totu paene aspectu a ceteris distant. Sunt enim in facie producta barba et lata cauda.

[33] Satyrs, with a very pleasing face, and restless with gesticulating motions. Callitriches differ from the others in almost their entire aspect. For they have on the face a projected beard and a broad tail.

[34] Leontophonos bestia modica; et ex eo ita vocata quia capta exuritur, eiusque cinere aspersae carnes et positae per conpita semitarum leones necant, si quantulumcumque ex illis sumpserint.

[34] The Leontophonos is a modest/small beast; and it is so called from this: because, when captured, it is burned, and meats sprinkled with its cinder and placed at the crossroads of footpaths kill lions, if they shall have taken ever so small a quantity of them.

[35] Histrix animal in Africa erinacii simile, vocatum ab stridore spinarum, quas tergo laxatas emittit ut canes vulneret insequentes.

[35] The porcupine, an animal in Africa, similar to the erinaceous hedgehog, named from the stridor of its spines, which, loosened on its back, it sends out so as to wound the dogs pursuing it.

[36] Enhydros bestiola ex eo nuncupata, quod in aquis versetur, et maxime in Nilo. Quae si invenerit dormientem corcodilum, volutat se in luto primum, et intrat per os eius in ventrem, et carpens omnia intranea eius, sic moritur.

[36] Enhydros, a little beast so named from this, because it dwells in the waters, and most of all in the Nile. If it finds a crocodile sleeping, it first rolls itself in the mud, and enters through its mouth into its belly, and, tearing at all its entrails, thus it dies.

[37] Ichneumon Graece vocatus, eo quod odore suo et salubria ciborum et venenosa produntur. De quo Dracontius ait (Laud. 1,515):

[37] Ichneumon, called in Greek, because by its odor both the salubrious of foods and the venomous are revealed. About which Dracontius says (Laud. 1,515):

Praecidit suillus vim cuiuscumque veneni.

The porcine cuts off the force of whatever venom.

Suillus autem a saetis est nuncupatus. Hic etiam serpentes insequitur; qui, cum adversus aspidem pugnat, caudam erigit, quam aspis maxime incipit observare quasi minantem; ad quam cum vim suam transfert, decepta corripitur.

Moreover the porcupine is named from its bristles. This one too pursues serpents; when it fights against an asp, it lifts its tail, which the asp begins especially to watch as if menacing; and when the asp transfers its force to it, deceived, it is seized.

[38] Musio appellatus, quod muribus infestus sit. Hunc vulgus cattum a captura vocant. Alii dicunt, quod cattat, id est videt.

[38] Called Musio, because he is hostile to mice. The common folk call him “cat” from capture. Others say, because he “cattats,” that is, sees.

Nam tanto acute cernit ut fulgore luminis noctis tenebras superet. Vnde a Graeco venit catus, id est ingeniosus, APO TOU KAIESTHAI.

For it discerns so acutely that by the effulgence of light it overcomes the darkness of night. Whence from Greek comes “catus,” that is “ingenious,” APO TOU KAIESTHAI.

[39] Furo a furvo dictus; unde et fur. Tenebrosos enim et occultos cuniculos effodit, et eicit praedam quam invenerit.

[39] The furo (ferret) is called from furvus, “dusky”; whence also fur, “thief.” For it digs tenebrous and occult burrows, and casts out the prey that it has found.

[40] Melo, vel quod sit rotundissimo membro, vel quod favos petat et assidue mella captet.

[40] Melo, either because it has a most rotund member, or because it seeks honeycombs and assiduously captures honey.

III. DE MINVTIS ANIMANTIBVS.

3. ON MINUTE ANIMALS.

[1] Mus pusillum animal. Graecum illi nomen est; quidquid vero ex eo trahit Latinum fit. Alii dicunt mures quod ex humore terrae nascantur; nam mus terra, unde et humus.

[1] The mouse is a tiny animal. It has a Greek name; whatever, however, is drawn from it becomes Latin. Others say mice because they are born from the moisture of the earth; for mus is earth, whence also humus.

His in plenilunio iecur crescit, sicut quaedam maritima augentur, quae rursus minuente luna deficiunt.

In them, at the full moon, the liver grows, just as certain maritime things are augmented, which in turn, as the moon wanes, are diminished.

[2] Sorex Latinum est, eo quod rodat et in modum serrae praecidat. Antiqui autem soricem sauricem dicebant, sicut et clodum claudum.

[2] Sorex is Latin, because it gnaws (is a rodent) and cuts off in the manner of a saw. But the ancients used to say sauricem for soricem, just as also clodum for claudum.

[3] Mustela dicta, quasi mus longus; nam telum a longitudine dictum. Haec ingenio subdola in domibus, ubi nutrit catulos suos, transfert mutatque sedem. Serpentes etiam et mures persequitur.

[3] The weasel is so called, as if a long mouse; for a weapon is named from length. She, crafty in nature, in houses where she nourishes her young, shifts and changes her dwelling. She also pursues serpents and mice.

Duo autem sunt genera mustelarum; alterum enim silvestre est distans magnitudine, quod Graeci IKTIDAS vocant; alterum in domibus oberrans. Falso autem opinantur qui dicunt mustelam ore concipere, aure effundere partum.

There are, moreover, two kinds of weasels; for the one is sylvan, differing in size, which the Greeks call IKTIDAS; the other wanders about in houses. But those who say that the weasel conceives by the mouth and pours out the offspring through the ear opine falsely.

[4] Mus araneum, cuius morsu aranea. Est in Sardinia animal perexiguum, aranei forma, quae solifuga dicitur, quod diem fugiat. In metallis argentariis plurima est, occultim reptans, et per inprudentiam supersedentibus pestem facit.

[4] The spider-mouse, by whose bite the spider perishes. There is in Sardinia a very minute animal, in the form of a spider, which is called solifuge, because it flees the day. In silver mines it is very abundant, creeping stealthily, and through imprudence it brings a plague upon those who are remiss.

[5] Talpa dicta, quod sit damnata caecitate perpetua tenebris. Est enim absque oculis, semper terram fodit, et humum egerit, et radices subter frugibus comedit; quam Graeci ASTHULAKA vocant.

[5] The mole is so called, because it is condemned by blindness to perpetual darkness. For it is without eyes, always digs the earth, and ejects the soil, and eats the roots beneath the crops; which the Greeks call ASTHULAKA.

[6] Glires dicti sunt quia pingues eos efficit somnus; nam gliscere dicimus crescere. Hieme enim tota dormiunt et inmobiles quasi mortui iacent, tempore aestivo reviviscunt.

[6] Dormice are called glires because sleep makes them fat; for we say gliscere, “to grow.” For through the whole winter they sleep and lie motionless as if dead; in the summer season they revive.

[7] Ericium animal spinis coopertum, quod exinde dicitur nominatum, eo quod subrigit se quando spinis suis clauditur, quibus undique protectus est contra insidias. Nam statim ut aliquid praesenserit, primum se subrigit, atque in globum conversus in sua se arma recolligit. Huius prudentia quaedam est; nam dum absciderit uvam de vite, supinus sese volutat super eam, et sic eam exhibet natis suis.

[7] The hedgehog is an animal covered with spines, which is said to be named from this, because it raises itself when it is enclosed by its spines, by which it is protected on all sides against insidious ambushes. For immediately as soon as it has had a presentiment of something, first it bristles up, and, turned into a globe, gathers itself back into its own arms. There is a certain prudence in this creature; for when it has cut off a grape from the vine, supine it rolls itself over it, and thus it presents it to its offspring.

[8] Gryllus nomen a sono vocis habet. Hic retro ambulat, terram terebrat, stridet noctibus. Vena(n)tur eum formica circumligata capillo in cavernam eius coniecta, afflato prius pulvere ne se abscondat; ita formicae conplexibus trahitur.

[8] The cricket has its name from the sound of its voice. It walks backward, bores the earth, and stridulates at night. They hunt it with an ant tied around with a hair, cast into its cavern, with dust first blown in so that it may not hide itself; thus it is dragged by the clutches of the ant.

[9] Formica dicta, ab eo quod ferat micas farris. Cuius sollertia multa; providet enim in futurum, et praeparat aestate quod hieme comedat; in messe autem eligit triticum, hordeum non tangit; dum pluit ei super frumentum, totum eicit. Dicuntur in Aethiopia esse formicae ad formam canis quae arenas aureas pedibus eruunt, quas custodiunt ne quis auferat, captantesque ad necem persequuntur.

[9] The ant is so called from the fact that it bears crumbs of far (spelt). Its ingenuity is great; for it provides for the future, and prepares in summer what it may eat in winter; at harvest, moreover, it chooses wheat, it does not touch barley; while it rains upon its grain, it casts it all out. They are said in Ethiopia to be ants in the shape of a dog which dig out golden sands with their feet, which they guard lest anyone carry them off, and, seizing those who try to snatch them, they pursue them to death.

[10] Formicoleon ob hoc vocatus, quia est vel formicarum leo vel certe formica pariter et leo. Est enim animal parvum formicis satis infestum, quod se in pulvere abscondit, et formicas frumenta gestantes interficit. Proinde autem leo et formica vocatur, quia aliis animalibus ut formica est, formicis autem ut leo est.

[10] Ant-lion called on this account, because it is either the lion of ants or surely both an ant and a lion together. For it is a small animal quite troublesome to ants, which hides itself in the dust, and kills ants carrying grains. And accordingly it is called both lion and ant, because to other animals it is as an ant, but to ants it is as a lion.

IV. DE SERPENTIBVS.

4. ON SERPENTS.

[1] Anguis vocabulum omnium serpentium genus quod plicari et contorqui potest; et inde anguis quod angulosus sit et numquam rcctus. Angues autem apud gentiles pro geniis locorum erant habiti semper, unde Persius (1,113):

[1] Anguis is the vocable for the whole genus of serpents that can be plicated and contorted; and thence anguis because it is angular and never straight. Moreover, snakes among the gentiles were always held as the genii of places, whence Persius (1,113):

Pinge duos angues: pueri, sacer est locus.

Paint two serpents: boys, the place is sacred.

[2] Colubrum ab eo dictum, quod colat umbras, vel quod in lubricos tractus flexibus sinuosis labatur. Nam lubricum dicitur quidquid labitur dum tenetur, ut piscis, serpens.

[2] Colubrum is so called either because it cultivates (inhabits) the shades, or because it slips into lubricous tracts with sinuous flexions. For lubricum is said of whatever slips while it is being held, like a fish, a serpent.

[3] Serpens autem nomen accepit quia occultis accessibus serpit, non apertis passibus, sed squamarum minutissimis nisibus repit. Illa autem quae quattuor pedibus nituntur, sicut lacerti et stiliones, non serpentes, sed reptilia nominantur. Serpentes autem reptilia sunt, quia ventre et pectore reptant.

[3] The serpent, moreover, received its name because it creeps by hidden approaches, not by open steps, but crawls by the very minute efforts of its scales. Those, however, which rely on four feet, like lacerti and stellions, are not called serpents but reptiles. Yet serpents are reptiles, because they crawl by belly and breast.

Quorum tot venena quot genera, tot pernicies quot species, tot dolores quot colores habentur.

Of which there are as many venoms as genera, as many pernicious destructions as species, as many dolors as colors are reckoned.

[4] Draco maior cunctorum serpentium, sive omnium animantium super terram. Hunc Graeci DRAKONTA vocant; unde et derivatum est in Latinum ut draco diceretur. Qui saepe ab speluncis abstractus fertur in aerem, concitaturque propter eum aer.

[4] The dragon is the greater of all serpents, indeed of all living beings upon the earth. The Greeks call it DRAKONTA; whence it has been derived into Latin so that it is called dragon. It is often drawn from caves and borne into the air, and the air is stirred up on account of it.

Est autem cristatus, ore parvo, et artis fistulis, per quas trahit spiritum et linguam exerat. Vim autem non in dentibus, sed in cauda habet, et verbere potius quam rictu nocet.

He is, moreover, crested, with a small mouth, and with narrow tubes, through which he draws breath and thrusts forth his tongue. His force, moreover, is not in his teeth, but in his tail, and he harms rather by lash than by gaping jaws.

[5] Innoxius autem est a venenis, sed ideo huic ad mortem faciendam venena non esse necessaria, quia si quem ligarit occidit. A quo nec elephans tutus est sui corporis magnitudine; nam circa semitas delitescens, per quas elephanti soliti gradiuntur, crura eorum nodis inligat, ac suffocatos perimit. Gignitur autem in Aethiopia et India in ipso incendio iugis aestus.

[5] Innocuous, moreover, with respect to venoms; but therefore for this creature poisons are not necessary for effecting death, because if it has bound someone, it kills. From this one not even the elephant is safe by the magnitude of its own body; for lurking beside the paths along which elephants are accustomed to go, it binds their legs with knots, and slays them by suffocation. It is engendered in Ethiopia and India, in the very conflagration of perpetual heat.

[6] Basiliscus Graece, Latine interpretatur regulus, eo quod rex serpentium sit, adeo ut eum videntes fugiant, quia olfactu suo eos necat; nam et hominem vel si aspiciat interimit. Siquidem et eius aspectu nulla avis volans inlaesa transit, sed quam procul sit, eius ore conbusta devoratur.

[6] Basilisk in Greek, in Latin is interpreted “regulus,” for the reason that he is king of serpents, to such a degree that those seeing him flee, because by his smell he kills them; for he even destroys a human being if he should so much as look at him. Indeed, at his aspect no bird flying passes unharmed, but however far off it may be, by his mouth, combusted, it is devoured.

[7] A mustelis tamen vincitur, quas illic homines inferunt cavernis in quibus delitescit; itaque eo visu fugit, quem illa persequitur et occidit. Nihil enim parens ille rerum sine remedio constituit. Est autem longitudine semipedalis; albis maculis lineatus.

[7] Yet it is overcome by weasels, which men there bring into the caverns where it lies hidden; and so at that sight it flees, and the weasel pursues and kills it. For that parent of things has established nothing without a remedy. Moreover, it is half a foot in length; lined with white spots.

[8] Reguli autem, sicut scorpiones, arentia quaeque sectantur, et postquam ad aquas venerint, UDROFOBOUS et lymphaticos faciunt.

[8] Basilisks, moreover, like scorpions, pursue all things that are parched; and after they have come to waters, they make people hydrophobic and lymphatic.

[9] Sibilus idem est qui et regulus. Sibilo enim occidit, antequam mordeat vel exurat.

[9] The Sibilus is the same as the Regulus; for by a hiss it kills, before it bites or burns.

[10] Vipera dicta, quod vi pariat. Nam et cum venter eius ad partum ingemuerit, catuli non expectantes maturam naturae solutionem conrosis eius lateribus vi erumpunt cum matris interitu. Lucanus (6,490):

[10] The viper is so called, because it brings forth by force. For even when its belly has groaned for delivery, the whelps, not awaiting the mature loosening of nature, with her sides having been gnawed through, burst forth by force, with the mother’s demise. Lucan (6,490):

Viperei coeunt, abrupto corpore, nodi.

Viperine knots couple, the body torn asunder.

[11] Fertur autem quod masculus ore inserto viperae semen expuat; illa autem ex voluptate libidinis in rabiem versa caput maris ore receptum praecidit. Ita fit ut parens uterque pereat; masculus, dum coit, dum parturit, femina. Ex vipera autem fiunt pastilli, qui THERIAKOI vocantur a Graecis.

[11] It is reported, moreover, that the male, having inserted his mouth into the viper’s mouth, expels semen; but she, turned into frenzy from the pleasure of lust, cuts off the male’s head, received in her mouth. Thus it comes about that each parent perishes: the male, while he couples; the female, while she gives birth. From the viper, moreover, pastilles are made, which are called THERIAKOI by the Greeks.

[12] Aspis vocata, quod morsu venena inmittat et spargat; IOS enim Graeci venenum dicunt: et inde aspis, quod morsu venenato interimat. Huius diversa genera et species, et dispares effectus ad nocendum. Fertur autem aspis, cum coeperit pati incantatorem, qui eam quibusdam carminibus propriis evocat ut eam de caverna producat: illa, cum exire noluerit, unam aurem in terram premit, alteram cauda obturat et operit, atque [ita] voces illas magicas non audiens non exit ad incantantem.

[12] Asp is so called, because with a bite it sends in and scatters poisons; for the Greeks call poison IOS: and thence “asp,” because it kills by a venomous bite. Of this there are diverse genera and species, and unlike effects for harming. Moreover it is reported that the asp, when she has begun to be subjected to an incantator, who with certain proper chants summons her so as to bring her out of the cavern: she, when she is unwilling to go out, presses one ear to the ground, with her tail plugs and covers the other, and [thus], not hearing those magical voices, does not go out to the incantator.

[13] Dipsas, genus aspidis, qui Latine situla dicitur, quia quem momorderit siti perit.

[13] Dipsas, a kind of asp, which in Latin is called “Situla,” because whoever it has bitten perishes of thirst.

[14] Hypnalis, genus aspidis, dicta quod somno necat. Hanc sibi Cleopatra adposuit, et ita morte quasi somno soluta est.

[14] The Hypnalis, a kind of asp, so called because it kills by sleep. Cleopatra applied this to herself, and thus was released by death as if by sleep.

[15] Haemorrhois aspis nuncupatus quod sanguinem sudet qui ab eo morsus fuerit, ita ut dissolutis venis, quidquid vitae est, per sanguinem evocet. Graece enim sanguis AIMA dicitur.

[15] The Haemorrhois asp is so named because whoever has been bitten by it sweats blood, such that, with the veins loosened, whatever of life there is is evoked through the blood. For in Greek blood is called AIMA.

[16] Prester aspis semper ore patenti et vaporanti currit. Cuius poeta sic meminit (Lucan. 9,722):

[16] The prester asp always runs with mouth gaping and vaporizing. Of which the poet thus makes mention (Lucan. 9,722):

Oraque distendens avidus fumantia prester.

the prester, avid, distending its fuming mouths.

Hic quem percusserit distenditur, enormique corpulentia necatur; extuberatum enim putredo sequitur.

He whom it has struck is distended, and is slain by enormous corpulence; for putrefaction follows the extuberation.

[17] Seps, tabificus aspis, qui dum momorderit hominem, statim eum consumit, ita ut liquefiat totus in ore serpentis.

[17] Seps, a wasting aspis, which, when it has bitten a man, immediately consumes him, so that he is wholly liquefied in the mouth of the serpent.

[18] Cerastes serpens dictus, eo quod in capite cornua habeat similia arietum; KERATA enim Graeci cornua vocant: sunt autem illi quadrigemina cornicula, quorum ostentatione, veluti esca, inlice sollicitata animalia perimit. Totum enim corpus tegit arenis, nec ullum indicium sui praebet, nisi ex ea parte qua invitatas aves vel animalia capit. Est autem flexuosus plus quam alii serpentes, ita ut spinam non habere videatur.

[18] The serpent Cerastes is so called, because it has horns on its head similar to those of rams; for the Greeks call horns KERATA: moreover it has fourfold little hornlets, by the display of which, as by a bait, with a lure drawing them on, it dispatches animals. For it covers its whole body with sands, and offers no indication of itself, except from that part with which it seizes birds or animals that have been lured. Moreover, it is more flexuous than other serpents, so that it seems not to have a spine.

[19] Scytale serpens vocata, quod tanta praefulget tergi varietate ut notarum gratia aspicientes retardet; et quia reptando pigrior est, quos adsequi non valet, miraculo sui stupentes capit. Tanti autem fervoris est ut etiam hiemis tempore exuvias corporis ferventis exponat. De quo Lucanus (9,717):

[19] Scytale, a serpent, is so named because it shines forth with such a variety of back that, by the grace of its markings, it delays those looking on; and because it is more sluggish in crawling, those whom it is not able to overtake it seizes, stunned at the marvel of itself. Moreover, it is of such fervor that even in the time of winter it casts out the exuviae of its burning body. Of which Lucan (9,717):

Et scytale sparsis etiam nunc sola pruinis
exuvias positura suas.

And the scytale, even now, with hoarfrosts scattered,
alone about to lay aside its own sloughs.

[20] Amphisbaena dicta, eo quod duo capita habeat, unum in loco suo, alterum in cauda, currens ex utroque capite, tractu corporis circulato. Haec sola serpentium frigori se committit, prima omnium procedens. De qua idem Lucanus (9,719):

[20] The Amphisbaena is called thus, because it has two heads, one in its proper place, the other in the tail, running from either head, with the tract of the body made circular. This alone of serpents commits itself to the cold, proceeding first of all. About which the same Lucan (9,719):

Et gravis in geminum vergens caput amphisbaena.

And the amphisbaena, heavy, leaning toward its twin head.

[21] Cuius oculi lucent veluti lucernae. Enhydris colubra in aqua vivens; Graeci enim aquam UDOR vocant.

[21] Whose eyes shine as if lamps. Enhydris, a snake living in water; for the Greeks call water UDOR.

[22] Hydros aquatilis serpens, a quo icti obturgescunt; cuius quidam morbum boam dicunt, eo quod fimo bovis remedietur.

[22] Hydros, an aquatic serpent, by which those struck swell up; some call its disease “boa,” because it is remedied by the dung of a cow.

[23] Hydra draco multorum capitum, qualis fuit in Lerna palude provinciae Arcadiae. Haec Latine excetra dicitur, quod uno caeso tria capita excrescebant. Sed hoc fabulosum est; nam constat Hydram locum fuisse evomentem aquas, vastantes vicinam civitatem, in quo, uno meatu clauso, multi erumpebant: quod Hercules videns loca ipsa exussit, et sic aquae clausit meatus.

[23] Hydra, a dragon of many heads, such as there was in the Lerna marsh of the province of Arcadia. This in Latin is called excetra, because when one was cut down, three heads grew out. But this is fabulous; for it is agreed that the Hydra was a place vomiting out waters, laying waste the neighboring city, in which, when one channel was closed, many burst forth. Seeing this, Hercules burned the places themselves, and thus shut the passages of the water.

Nam Hydra ab aqua dicta est.

For Hydra is named from water.

[24] Chelydros serpens, qui et chersydros, quasi ðcerimð, quia et in aquis et in terris moratur; nam CHERSON dicunt Graeci terram, UDOR aquam. Hic per quam labitur terram, fumare facit: quam sic Macer describit (8):

[24] The chelydros serpent, which is also [called] chersydros, as if “amphibious,” because it dwells both in waters and on land; for the Greeks call CHERSON “land,” UDOR “water.” This one, wherever over the earth it glides, makes it smoke: which Macer thus describes (8):

Seu terga expirant spumantia virus,
seu terra fumat, qua teter labitur anguis.

Whether their backs exhale foaming venom,
or the earth smokes where the foul serpent glides.

Et Lucanus (9,711):

And Lucan (9,711):

Tractique via fumante chelydri.

And chelydri dragged along, with the road smoking.

Semper autem directus ambulat; nam si torserit se, dum currit, statim crepat.

However it always walks straight; for if it twists itself, while it runs, it immediately cracks.

[25] Natrix serpens aquam veneno inficiens; in quocumque enim fonte fuerit, eum veneno inmiscit. De quo Lucanus (9,720):

[25] The natrix, a serpent infecting water with venom; for in whatever spring it may have been, it commixes it with venom. Concerning which Lucan (9,720):

Natrix violator aquae.

Natrix, a violator of water.

[26] Cenchris serpens inflexuosa, quae semper rectum iter efficit. De qua Lucanus (9,712):

[26] Cenchris, an inflexuous serpent, which always makes a straight path. About which Lucan (9,712):

Et semper recto lapsurus limite cencliris.

And the cenchris, ever destined to glide along a straight track.

[27] Parias serpens quae semper in cauda ambulat et sulcum facere videtur. De quo idem Lucanus (9,721):

[27] The Parias serpent, which always walks on its tail and seems to make a furrow. Concerning which the same Lucan (9,721):

Quo contentus iter cauda sulcare parias.

Content with this, Parias, to furrow the way with your tail.

[28] Boas, anguis Italiae inmensa mole, persequitur greges armentorum et bubalos, et plurimo lacte riguis se uberibus innectit et sugens interimit, atque inde a boum depopulatione boas nomen accepit.

[28] The boas, a serpent of Italy of immense mass, pursues herds of cattle and buffaloes, and it fastens itself to udders irrigated with very much milk and, sucking, kills; and from the depopulation of oxen it received the name boas.

[29] Iaculus serpens volans. De quo Lucanus (9,720):

[29] The iaculus, a flying serpent. About which Lucan (9,720):

Iaculique volucres.

And the flying iaculi.

Exiliunt enim in arboribus, et dum aliquod animal obvium fuerit, iactant se super eum et perimunt; unde et iaculi dicti sunt. In Arabia autem sunt serpentes cum alis, quae sirenae vocantur, quae plus currunt ab equis, sed etiam et volare dicuntur; quorum tantum virus est ut morsum ante mors insequatur quain dolor.

For they leap forth from trees, and whenever some animal has come in their way, they hurl themselves upon it and kill it; whence they are called jaculi. In Arabia, however, there are serpents with wings, which are called Sirens, which run swifter than horses, but are also said to fly; whose venom is so great that death follows the bite before pain.

[30] Ophites dicta, quod colorem arenae habeat. De qua poeta (Lucan. 9,714):

[30] Called Ophites, because it has the color of sand. About which the poet (Lucan. 9,714):

Quam parvis pictus maculis Thebanus ophites
concolor exustis atque indiscretus arenis
ammodytes.

The Theban ophites painted with how minute spots
same-colored with scorched and indistinguishable sands
the ammodytes.

[31] Seps exiguus serpens, qui non solum corpus sed et ossa veneno consumit. Cuius poeta sic meminit (Lucan. 9,723):

[31] Seps, a tiny serpent, which with its venom consumes not only the body but also the bones. Of which the poet thus makes mention (Lucan. 9,723):

Ossaque dissolvens cum corpore tabificus seps.

And the wasting seps, dissolving the bones along with the body.

[32] Dipsas serpens tantae exiguitatis fertur ut cum calcatur, non videatur. Cuius venenum ante extinguit quam sentiatur, ut facies praeventa morte nec tristitiam induat morituri. De quo poeta (Lucan. 9,737):

[32] The dipsas serpent is reported to be of such exiguity that, when it is trodden on, it is not seen. Its venom extinguishes before it is perceived, so that the face, pre-empted by death, does not assume the sadness of one about to die. About which the poet (Lucan. 9,737):

Signiferum iuvenem Tyrrheni sanguinis Aulum
torto capite retro dipsas calcata momordit:
vix dolor aut sensus dentis fuit.

the standard-bearing youth Aulus of Tyrrhenian blood
a dipsas, having been trodden on, with head twisted backward, bit:
there was scarcely pain or a sense of the tooth.

[33] Salpuga serpens est quae non videtur. Caecula dicta, propter quod parva sit et non habeat oculos. Centupeda a multitudine pedum dicta.

[33] A salpuga is a serpent which is not seen. Called Caecula, because it is small and does not have eyes. The centipede is named from the multitude of its feet.

[34] Lacertus reptile genus est, vocatus ita quod brachia habeat. Genera lacertorum plura: ut botrax, salamandra, saura, stellio.

[34] The lizard (lacertus) is a kind of reptile, so called because it has arms. There are several kinds of lizards: such as botrax, salamander, saura, stellion.

[35] Botrax dicta, quod ranae habeat faciem; nam Graeci ranam BATRACHON vocant.

[35] Botrax is so called, because it has the face of a frog; for the Greeks call a frog BATRACHON.

[36] Salamandra vocata, quod contra incendia valeat. Cuius inter omnia venenata vis maxima est; cetera enim singulos feriunt, haec plurimos pariter interimit. Nam si arbori inrepserit, omnia poma inficit veneno, et eos qui ederint occidit; qui etiam vel si in puteum cadat, vis veneni eius potantes interficit.

[36] The salamander is so called because it is strong against fires. Whose force among all venomous things is the greatest; for the others strike individuals, this one destroys very many at once. For if it has crept upon a tree, it infects all the fruits with poison, and slays those who eat them; and even if it should fall into a well, the force of its poison kills those drinking.

Ista contra incendia repugnans, ignes sola animalium extinguit; vivit enim in mediis flammis sine dolore et consummatione, et non solum quia non uritur, sed extinguit incendium.

Resisting conflagrations, it alone among animals extinguishes fires; for it lives in the midst of flames without pain and without consumption, and not only because it is not burned, but it quenches the fire.

[37] Saura lacertus, qui quando senescit, caecantur oculi eius, et intrat in foramen parietis aspicientis contra Orientem, et orto sole intendit et inluminatur.

[37] The Saura, a lizard, which, when it grows old, its eyes are blinded, and it enters into a hole of a wall facing toward the East, and, the sun having risen, it stretches out and is illuminated.

[38] Stellio de colore inditum nomen habet; est enim tergore pictus lucentibus guttis in modum stellarum. De quo Ovidius (Metam. 5,461):

[38] The stellio has a name bestowed from its color; for on its back it is painted with lucent drops in the manner of stars. About which Ovid (Metamorphoses 5, 461):

aptumque colori
Nomen habet, variis stellatus corpore guttis.

and it has a name apt to its color,
starred over its body with varied spots.

Hic autem scorpionibus adeo contrarius traditur ut viso eo pavorem his adferat et torporem.

This, however, is handed down as so contrary to scorpions that, at the sight of it, it brings to them fear and torpor.

[39] Sunt et alia serpentium genera; ut ammodytae, elephantiae, chamaedracontes. Postremo quantus nominum, tantus mortium numerus. Omnes autem serpentes natura sua frigidae sunt; nec percutiunt nisi quando calescunt.

[39] There are also other kinds of serpents: such as ammodytae, elephantiae, chamaedracontes. Lastly, as great as the number of names, so the number of deaths. But all serpents are by their nature cold; nor do they strike except when they grow warm.

[40] Nam quando sunt frigidae, nullum tangunt; unde et venena eorum plus die quam nocte nocent. Torpent enim noctis algore, et merito, quia frigidae sunt nocturno rore. In se enim adducunt vaporem corporis gelidi pestes et natura frigidae; unde et hieme in nodos torpent, aestate solvuntur.

[40] For when they are cold, they touch no one; whence also their venoms harm more by day than by night. For they grow torpid in the chill of night, and with merit, because they are chilled by nocturnal dew. For—plagues and of a cold nature—they draw into themselves the vapor of a gelid body; whence also in winter they grow torpid into knots, in summer they are loosened.

[41] Inde est quod dum quicumque serpentium veneno percutitur, primum obstupescit, et postea, ubi in illo calefactum ipsum virus exarserit, statim hominem extinguit. Venenum autem dictum, eo quod per venas vadit; infusa enim pestis eius per venas vegetatione corporis aucta discurrit et animam exigit.

[41] Hence it is that whenever anyone is struck by the venom of serpents, first he is stupefied, and afterwards, when in him the very virus, having been warmed, has blazed up, it immediately extinguishes the man. But it is called venom because it goes through the veins; for its infused pestilence runs through the veins, augmented by the body’s vegetation, and exacts the soul.

[42] Vnde non posse venenum nocere, nisi hominis tetigerit sanguinem. Lucanus (9,614):

[42] Whence it is that venom cannot harm, unless it has touched a man’s blood. Lucan (9,614):

Noxia serpentium est admixto sanguine pestis.

The pestilence of serpents is noxious when mingled with blood.

Omne autem venenum frigidum est, et ideo anima, quae ignea est, fugit venenum frigidum. In naturalibus bonis, quae nobis et inrationabilibus animantibus videmus esse communia, vivacitate quadam sensus serpens excellit.

But every venom is cold, and therefore the soul, which is fiery, flees the cold venom. In the natural goods which we see to be common to us and to irrational animals, the serpent excels by a certain vivacity of sense.

[43] Vnde et legitur in Genesi (3,1): 'Serpens autem erat sapientior omnibus pecoribus terrae.' Dicit autem Plinius, si creditur, quod serpentis caput etiam si cum duobus evaserit digitis, nihilominus vivit. Vnde et totum corpus obicit pro capite ferientibus.

[43] Whence also it is read in Genesis (3,1): 'Now the serpent was wiser than all the cattle of the earth.' Pliny says, if he is to be believed, that the serpent’s head, even if it has escaped by two fingers’ breadth, nonetheless lives. Therefore it also puts forth its whole body in place of its head to those striking.

[44] Anguibus universis hebes visus est. Raro in adversum contuentur, nec frustra, cum oculos non in fronte habeant, sed in temporibus; adeo ut citius audiant quam aspiciant. Nullum autem animal in tanta celeritate linguam movet ut serpens, adeo ut triplicem linguam habere videatur, cum una sit.

[44] In all serpents, sight is dull. They rarely look straight ahead, nor without cause, since they do not have their eyes in the forehead, but in the temples; so much so that they hear more quickly than they see. Moreover, no animal moves its tongue with such celerity as the serpent, so that it seems to have a triple tongue, though it is one.

[45] Serpentium humida sunt corpora, adeo ut quaque eunt, viam humore designent. Vestigia serpentium talia sunt ut, cum pedibus carere videantur, costis tamen et squamarum nisibus repant, quas a summo gutture usque ad imam alvum parili modo dispositas habent. Squamis enim quasi unguibus, costis quasi cruribus innituntur.

[45] The bodies of serpents are humid, to such a degree that wherever they go they designate the way with moisture. The tracks of serpents are such that, although they seem to lack feet, nevertheless they crawl by the pressures of the ribs and of the scales, which they have arranged in a like manner from the top of the throat down to the lowest belly. For they lean on the scales as if on claws, on the ribs as if on legs.

[46] Vnde si in qualibet corporis parte ab alvo usque ad caput ictu aliquo conlidatur, debilis reddita cursum habere non possit; quia ubicumque ille ictus inciderit, spinam solvit, per quam costarum pedes et motus corporis agebantur. Serpentes autem diu vivere dicuntur, adeo ut deposita vetere tunica senectutem deponere atque in iuventam redire perhibeantur.

[46] Whence, if in any part of the body from the belly up to the head it is struck and battered by some blow, being rendered feeble it cannot have motion; because wherever that blow falls, it loosens the spine, through which the feet of the ribs and the movement of the body were driven. Serpents, moreover, are said to live for a long time, to such an extent that, with the old tunic laid aside, they are reported to lay aside old age and return into youth.

[47] Tunicae serpentium exuviae nuncupantur, eo quod his, quando senescunt, sese exuunt, quibus exuti in iuventam redeunt. Dicuntur enim exuviae et induviae, quia exuuntur et induuntur.

[47] The tunics of serpents are named exuviae, for the reason that with these, when they grow old, they shed themselves; and, stripped of them, they return into youth. For they are called exuviae and induviae, because they are taken off and put on.

[48] Pythagoras dicit de medulla hominis mortui, quae in spina est, serpentem creari; quod etiam Ovidius in Metamorphoseorum libris commemorat dicens (15,398):

[48] Pythagoras says that from the marrow of a dead man, which is in the spine, a serpent is created; which also Ovid in the books of the Metamorphoses commemorates, saying (15,398):

Sunt qui cum clauso putrefacta est spina sepulchro
mutari credunt humanas angue medullas.

There are those who believe that, when the spine has putrefied in a closed sepulchre,
the human marrows are changed into a serpent.

Quod si creditur, merito evenit ut sicut per serpentem mors hominis, ita et hominis morte serpens. Fertur autem quod serpens hominem nudum non sit ausus contingere.

But if this is believed, it comes to pass deservedly that, just as through the serpent the death of man, so also by the death of man, the serpent. Moreover, it is reported that a serpent has not dared to touch a naked man.

V. DE VERMIBVS.

5. ON WORMS.

[1] Vermis est animal quod plerumque de carne, vel de ligno, vel de quacumque re terrena sine ullo concubitu gignitur; licet nonnumquam et de ovis nascuntur, sicut scorpio. Sunt autem vermes aut terrae, aut aquae, aut aeris, aut carnium, aut frondium, aut lignorum, aut vestimentorum.

[1] A worm is an animal that for the most part is generated from flesh, or from wood, or from any earthly thing, without any coupling; although sometimes they are also born from eggs, just as the scorpion. There are, moreover, worms either of earth, or of water, or of air, or of flesh, or of fronds/leaves, or of woods, or of garments.

[2] Aranea vermis aeris, ab aeris nutrimento cognominata; quae exiguo corpore longa fila deducit, et telae semper intenta numquam desinit laborare, perpetuum sustinens in sua arte suspendium.

[2] The spider, a worm of the air, named from the nourishment of the air; which with a slight body draws out long threads, and, always intent upon the web, never ceases to labor, sustaining a perpetual suspension in its art.

[3] Sanguisuga vermis aquatilis, dicta quod sanguinem sugit. Potantibus enim insidiatur, cumque labitur faucibus vel ubi uspiam adhaerescit, sanguinem haurit; et cum nimio cruore maduerit, evomit quod hausit, ut recentiorem denuo sugat.

[3] The leech is an aquatic worm, so called because it sucks blood. It lies in wait for those drinking, and when it slips into the throat or wherever it chances to cling, it draws blood; and when it has been drenched with excessive gore, it vomits up what it has imbibed, so that it may suck afresh the more recent blood.

[4] Scorpio vermis terrenus, qui potius vermibus adscribitur, non serpentibus; animal armatum aculeo, et ex eo Graece vocatum quod cauda figat et arcuato vulnere venena diffundat. Proprium est autem scorpionis quod manus palmam non feriat.

[4] Scorpion, a terrestrial worm, which is assigned rather to worms than to serpents; an animal armed with a sting, and from this named in Greek, because it pierces with the tail and with an arched wound diffuses poisons. It is the peculiar property of the scorpion that it does not strike the palm of the hand.

[5] Cantharida vermis terrenus [qui humano corpori statim fuerit applicatus, sui adustione vesicas efficit plenas humore].

[5] The cantharid, a terrestrial worm, [which, when it has been immediately applied to the human body, by its own adustion produces blisters full of humor].

[6] Multipes vermis terrenus, ex multitudine pedum vocatus, qui contactus in globum conplicatur. Nascitur sub petris ex humore et terra.

[6] The multipede, a terrestrial worm, so called from the multitude of feet, which, when touched, folds up into a globe. It is born under stones from moisture and earth.

[7] Limax vermis limi, dictus quod in limo vel de limo nascatur; unde et sordida semper et inmunda habetur.

[7] The limax, a worm of slime, so called because it is born in slime or from slime; whence also it is always held as sordid and unclean.

[8] Bombyx frondium vermis, ex cuius textura bombycinum conficitur. Appellatus autem hoc nomine ab eo quod evacuetur dum fila generat, et aer solus in eo remaneat.

[8] The bombyx, a worm of foliage, from whose weaving bombycine silk is made. It is called by this name from the fact that it is emptied while it generates threads, and only air remains in it.

[9] Eruca frondium vermis in holus, vel [in] pampino involuta, ab erodendo dicta. De qua meminit Plautus (Cist. 728):

[9] The caterpillar, a worm of leaves, on a vegetable, or [in] a vine-leaf wrapped, is named from eroding. Of which Plautus makes mention (Cist. 728):

Imitatus nequam bestiam et maleficam involutam in pampino inplicat se.

Imitating a good-for-nothing beast and a malefic woman (witch), wrapped in a vine-leaf, he entwines himself.

Idem nec advolat, ut locusta, ut huc illucque discurrens semipasta dimittat, sed permanet perituris frugibus et tardo lapsu pigrisque morsibus universa consumit.

The same neither flies in, like the locust, so that, running here and there, it would leave off half-fed, but it remains upon crops destined to perish and, with a tardy glide and sluggish bites, consumes the whole.

[10] Teredonas Graeci vocant lignorum vermes, quod terendo edant. Hos nos termites dicimus. Ita enim apud Latinos ligni vermes vocantur, quos tempore inoportuno caesae arbores gignunt.

[10] The Greeks call the worms of wood teredones, because by boring they eat. We call these termites. For among the Latins they are called wood-worms, which trees felled at an inopportune time engender.

[11] Tinea vestimentorum vermis, dicta quod teneat, et eo usque insedat quo erodat. Inde et pertinax, quod in eandem rem identidem urgeat.

[11] The tinea, the worm of vestments, is so called because it holds fast, and it sits upon them until it erodes them. Hence also “pertinacious,” because it urges the same thing again and again.

[12] Vermes carnium: hemicranius, lumbricus, ascaridae, costi, peduculi, pulices, lendes, tarmus, ricinus, usia, cimex.

[12] Worms of flesh: hemicranius, lumbricus, ascarids, costi, lice, fleas, nits, tarmus, tick, usia, bedbug.

[13] Hemicranius vermis capitis vocatus. Lumbricus vermis intestinarum, dictus quasi lumbicus, quia labitur, vel quod in lumbis sit.

[13] Hemicranius, a worm of the head, so called. Lumbricus, a worm of the intestines, called as if “lumbicus,” because it glides, or because it is in the loins.

[14] Ascaridae ä Costi ä Peduculi vermes cutis a pedibus dicti. Vnde et peducosi dicuntur quibus peduculi in corpore effervescunt.

[14] Ascarids, Costi, and Pediculi are worms of the skin, so called from the feet. Whence also those are called peducosi, in whom pediculi effervesce on the body.

[15] Pulices vero vocati sunt quod ex pulvere magis nutriantur. Lendes ä Tarmus vermis est lardi. Ricinus vermis est canis, vocatus eo quod haeret in auribus canum; KUON enim Graece canis est.

[15] Fleas indeed are so called because they are nourished more from dust. Nits; Tarmus is the worm of lard. Ricinus is the dog’s worm, called so because it sticks in the ears of dogs; for KUON in Greek is “dog.”

[16] Vsia est vermis porci, appellata quia urit; nam ubi momorderit, adeo locus ardet ut ibi vesicae fiant.

[16] Vsia is a worm of the pig, appellated because it burns; for when it has bitten, the place burns to such a degree that vesicles are formed there.

[17] Cimex de similitudine cuiusdam herbae vocatus, cuius foetorem habet.

[17] The bedbug is called from the similitude of a certain herb, whose fetor it has.

[18] Proprie autem vermis in carne putre nascitur; tinea in vestimentis; eruca in holere; teredo in ligno; tarmus in lardo.

[18] Properly, however, a worm is born in putrid flesh; a clothes‑moth in garments; a caterpillar in vegetables; a teredo in wood; a bacon‑worm in lard.

[19] Vermis non ut serpens apertis passibus vel squamarum nisibus repit, quia non est illi spinae rigor, ut colubri, sed in directum corpusculi sui partes gradatim porrigendo contractas, contrahendo porrectas motum explicat, sicque agitatus perlabitur.

[19] The worm does not, like the serpent, creep with open strides or by the thrusts of its scales, because it does not have the rigidity of a spine, as the snake has; rather, in a straight line, by gradually stretching out the contracted parts of its little body and by contracting the parts stretched out, it explicates its motion, and thus, being set in motion, it glides along.

VI. DE PISCIBVS.

6. ON FISHES.

[1] Pisces dicti unde et pecus, a pascendo scilicet.

[1] Fish are called from the same source as pecus (‘herd’), namely from pasturing/feeding.

[2] Reptilia ideo dicuntur haec quae natant, eo quod reptandi habeant speciem et naturam; quamvis se in profundum inmergant, tamen in natando repunt. Vnde et David ait (Psalm. 104,25): 'Hoc mare magnum et spatiosum; illic reptilia, quorum non est numerus.'

[2] For this reason those which swim are called reptiles, because they have the appearance and the nature of crawling; although they immerse themselves into the deep, yet in swimming they creep. Whence also David says (Psalm. 104,25): 'This is the great and spacious sea; there, creeping things, of which there is no number.'

[3] Amphibia sunt quaedam genera piscium, dicta eo quod ambulandi in terris usum et natandi in aquis officium habeant. AMFI enim Graece utrumque dicitur, id est quia et in aquis et in terris vivunt: ut phocae, corcodilli, hippopotami, hoc est equi fluviales.

[3] Certain genera of fish are amphibious, so called because they have the use of walking on lands and the office of swimming in waters. For AMFI in Greek is said of both, that is, because they live both in waters and on lands: as seals, crocodiles, hippopotami, that is, river horses.

[4] Pecoribus autem et bestiis et volatilibus antea homines nomina inposuerunt quam piscibus, quia prius visa et cognita sunt. Piscium vero postea paulatim cognitis generibus nomina instituta sunt aut ex similitudine terrestrium animalium, aut ex specie propria sive moribus [seu colore, vel figura, aut sexu].

[4] However, humans assigned names to cattle and to beasts and to birds earlier than to fishes, because they were first seen and known. But for fishes, later, as their genera were gradually recognized, names were instituted either from a similitude to terrestrial animals, or from their own appearance or habits [or from color, or figure, or sex].

[5] Ex similitudine terrestrium: ut ranae et vituli et leones et nigri meruli et pavi diverso colore, dorso et collo picti, et turdi albo varii, et cetera quae sibi iuxta species terrestrium animalium nomina vindicaverunt. Ex moribus terrestrium: ut canes in mari a terrenis canibus nuncupati, quod mordeant; et lupi, quod inproba voracitate alios persequantur.

[5] From the similarity of terrestrial animals: as frogs and calves and lions and black blackbirds and peacocks, of diverse color, painted on back and neck, and thrushes variegated with white, and the rest which have claimed for themselves names according to the species of terrestrial animals. From the mores of terrestrial animals: as “dogs” in the sea, named from land-dogs, because they bite; and “wolves,” because with immoderate voracity they pursue others.

[6] A colore: ut umbrae, quia colore umbrae sunt; et auratae, quia in capite auri colorem habent; et varii a varietate, quos vulgo tructas vocant. A figura: ut orbis, quia rotundus est totusque in capite constat; ut solea, quod sit instar calciamentorum soleis. A sexu: ut musculus, quod sit ballenae masculus; eius enim coitu concipere haec bellua perhibetur.

[6] From color: as umbras, because they are in the color of a shadow; and aurates, because in the head they have the color of gold; and the varied ones from variety, whom in the common tongue they call trouts. From figure: as orb, because it is round and entirely consists in the head; as sole, because it is in the likeness of the soles of shoes. From sex: as musculus, because it is the male of the whale; for by his coitus this beast is said to conceive.

Hinc et musculi coclearum, quorum lacte concipiunt ostreae.

Hence also the mussels of the snails, by whose milk the oysters conceive.

[7] Ballenae autem sunt inmensae magnitudinis bestiae, ab emittendo et fundendo aquas vocatae; ceteris enim bestiis maris altius iaciunt undas; BALLEIN enim Graece emittere dicitur.

[7] But whales are beasts of immense magnitude, named from emitting and pouring out waters; for they cast up waves higher than the other beasts of the sea; for BALLEIN in Greek is said to mean to emit.

[8] Cete dicta TO KETOS KAI TA KETE, hoc est ob inmanitatem. Sunt enim ingentia genera beluarum et aequalia montium corpora; qualis cetus excepit Ionam, cuius alvus tantae magnitudinis fuit ut instar obtineret inferni, dicente Propheta (2,3): 'Exaudivit me de ventre inferni.'

[8] The cetes are so called “the ketos and the kete,” that is, on account of their immensity. For they are vast kinds of beasts and bodies equal to mountains; such was the sea-monster that received Jonah, whose belly was of such magnitude that it held the likeness of Hell, as the Prophet says (2,3): “He heard me from the belly of Hell.”

[9] Equi marini, quod prima parte equi sunt, postrema solvuntur in piscem. Bocas dicunt esse boves marinos, quasi boacas.

[9] Sea-horses, since in the front part they are horses, in the hind part are resolved into a fish. They say that bocas are marine oxen, as it were “boacas.”

[10] Caerulei a colore appellati; nam caeruleum est viride cum nigro, ut est mare.

[10] Ceruleans are named from their color; for cerulean is green with black, as the sea is.

[11] Delphines certum habent vocabulum, quod voces hominum sequantur, vel quod ad symphoniam gregatim conveniunt. Nihil in mare velocius istis; nam plerumque salientes naves transvolant. Quando autem praeludunt in fluctibus et undarum se molibus saltu praecipiti feriunt, tempestates significare videntur.

[11] Dolphins have a definite appellation, because they follow the voices of men, or because they assemble by symphony in a flock. Nothing in the sea is swifter than these; for very often, leaping, they fly across ships. But when they prelude in the billows and strike themselves with a headlong leap against the masses of the waves, they seem to signify storms.

Hi proprie simones nominantur. Est et delphinum genus in Nilo dorso serrato, qui crocodillos tenera ventrium secantes interimunt.

These are properly named simones. There is also a genus of dolphins in the Nile with a serrated back, which, cutting the tender bellies of crocodiles, kill them.

[12] Porci marini, qui vulgo vocantur suilli, quia dum escam quaerunt, more suis terram sub aquis fodiunt. Circa guttur enim habent oris officium, et nisi rostrum arenis inmergunt, pastum non colligunt.

[12] Sea-pigs, which are commonly called “suilli,” are so called because, while they seek food, in the manner of swine they dig the earth beneath the waters. For around the throat they have the office of a mouth, and unless they immerse the snout in the sands, they do not gather nourishment.

[13] Corvi a cordis voce dicti, quia grunniunt pectore, suaque voce proditi capiuntur.

[13] Ravens are said to be named from the voice of the heart, because they grunt from the breast, and, betrayed by their own voice, they are captured.

[14] Thynni Graecum nomen habent. Hi ingrediuntur veris tempore, intrant dextro latere, laevo exeunt. Hoc inde creduntur quod dextris oculis acutius videant quam sinistris.

[14] The Thynni have a Greek name. They enter in the time of spring; they go in by the right side, they go out by the left. They are believed to do this because with their right eyes they see more acutely than with their left.

[15] Gladius dicitur eo quod rostro mucronato sit: ob hoc naves perfossas mergit.

[15] It is called a gladius because it has a sharp-pointed beak; on this account it sinks ships perforated.

[16] Serra nuncupata, quia serratam cristam habet, et subternatans navem secat.

[16] The Serra is so named, because it has a serrated crest, and, swimming beneath, it cuts the ship.

[17] Scorpio dictus, quia laedit dum manu tollitur. Tradunt decem cancris cum ocimi manipulo alligatis omnes qui ibi sunt scorpiones ad eum locum congregari.

[17] The scorpion is so called because it harms when it is lifted by hand. They hand down that, with ten crabs tied with a maniple (handful) of basil, all the scorpions that are there gather to that place.

[18] Aranea genus piscis, dictus quod aure feriat; habet enim stimulos e quibus percutit.

[18] Aranea, a genus of fish, so called because it smites with its ear; for it has stings with which it strikes.

[19] Crocodillus, a croceo colore dictus, gignitur in Nilo, animal quadrupes in terra et aquis valens, longitudine plerumque viginti cubitorum, dentium et unguium inmanitate armatum, tantaque cutis duritia ut quamvis fortium ictus lapidum tergo repercutiat. Nocte in aquis, die humi quiescit.

[19] Crocodile, called from the crocus-colored hue, is engendered in the Nile, a quadruped animal, strong on land and in the waters, commonly twenty cubits in length, armed with the enormity of its teeth and claws, and with such hardness of hide that it reflects from its back the blows of stones, however strong. At night in the waters, by day on the ground it rests.

[20] Ova in terra fovet: masculus et femina vices servant. Hunc pisces quidam serratam habentes cristam tenera ventrium desecantes interimunt. [Solus ex animalibus superiorem maxillam movere dicitur.]

[20] He incubates the eggs on land: the male and the female keep turns. Certain fishes, having a serrated crest, dispatch him by cutting the tender parts of the belly. [He alone among animals is said to move the upper jaw.]

[21] Hippopotamus vocatus, quod sit equo similis dorso, iuba et hinnitu, rostro resupinato, aprinis dentibus, cauda tortuosa. Die in aquis commoratur, nocte segetes depascitur: et hunc Nilus gignit.

[21] Called Hippopotamus, because it is like a horse in the back, in mane and whinny, with an upturned snout, boar’s teeth, and a tortuous tail. By day it sojourns in the waters, by night it grazes down the crops; and the Nile begets it.

[22] Pagrum, quem Graeci FAGRON ideo nuncupant quod duros dentes habeat, ita ut ostreis in mari alatur.

[22] The pagrus, which the Greeks therefore name FAGRON because it has hard teeth, to such a degree that it is nourished on oysters in the sea.

[23] Dentix pro multitudine et granditate dentium dictus. Lepus a similitudine capitis nuncupatus.

[23] Dentex is so called for the multitude and greatness of its teeth. Lepus is named from the likeness of its head.

[24] Lupum, ut dictum est, aviditas appellavit, piscem in captura ingeniosum: denique rete circumdatus fertur arenas arare cauda, atque ita conditus transire rete.

[24] The wolf, as has been said, avidity has named, a fish ingenious in capture: finally, when surrounded by the net, he is reported to plough the sands with his tail, and thus, buried, to pass beneath the net.

[25] Mullus vocatus, quod mollis sit atque tenerrimus. Cuius cibo tradunt libidinem inhibere, oculorum autem aciem hebetari: homines vero, quibus saepe pastus, piscem olent. Mullus in vino necatus, hi, qui inde biberint, taedium vini habent.

[25] The mullet is so called because it is soft and very tender. They hand down that food of it inhibits libido, and that the acuity of the eyes is dulled; but people who have often fed on it smell of fish. If a mullet is killed in wine, those who have drunk therefrom have an aversion to the wine.

[26] Mugilis nomen habet quod sit multum agilis. Nam ubi dispositas senserit piscatorum insidias, confestim retrorsum rediens ita transilit rete ut volare piscem videas.

[26] The mugil has its name because it is very agile. For when it senses the fishermen’s snares laid out, immediately, turning back backward, it leaps across the net in such a way that you may see the fish fly.

[27] Melanurus, eo quod nigram caudam habeat et pinnas nigras et in corpore lineas nigras; MELAN enim Graeci nigrum vocant.

[27] Melanurus, because it has a black tail and black fins and black lines on the body; for MELAN the Greeks call “black.”

[28] Glaucus a colore dictus, quod albus sit; Graeci enim album GLAUKON dicunt. Hic aestate raro apparet, nisi tantum in nubilo.

[28] Glaucus, named from color, because he is white; for the Greeks call white GLAUKON. He in summer rarely appears, except only in cloudy weather.

[29] Thymallus ex flore nomen accepit: thymum quippe flos appellatur: nam dum sit specie gratus et sapore iucundus, tamen sicut flos fraglat et corpore odores aspirat.

[29] The thymallus received its name from a flower: for thyme, indeed, is called a flower: for while it is pleasing in appearance and agreeable in savor, nevertheless, like a flower it is fragrant and from its body breathes out odors.

[30] Escarus dictus, eo quod solus escam ruminare perhibetur: denique alii pisces non ruminant. Tradunt autem hunc ingeniosum esse; namque inclusum nassis non fronte erumpere nec infestis viminibus caput inserere, sed aversum caudae ictibus crebris laxare fores atque ita retrorsum redire; quem luctatum eius si forte alius escarus extrinsecus videat, adprehensa mordicus cauda adiuvare nisus erumpentis.

[30] Escarus is so called because he alone is said to ruminate food; indeed, other fishes do not ruminate. They hand down, moreover, that this one is ingenious; for when shut in basket-traps he does not burst out headlong nor insert his head into the hostile withies, but, turned away, by frequent blows of the tail he loosens the doors and thus goes back backward; and if perchance another escarus from outside should see his struggle, having seized the tail with his teeth, he strives to help the one breaking out.

[31] Sparus a lancea missile nomen traxit, quod eiusdem figurae sit. Terrestria enim prius inventa sunt quam marina. Nam sparus est telum rusticanum missile, ab spargendo dictum.

[31] The sparus drew its name from the lance, a missile, because it is of the same figure. For terrestrial things were discovered earlier than marine. For a sparus is a rustic missile weapon, said from spargere, “to scatter.”

[32] Australis piscis, sive quia aquarum undam ore suscipit, sive quia tunc [hic] piscis oritur quo tempore tendere in occasum Pleiades coeperint.

[32] The Austral fish, either because it takes the wave of the waters with its mouth, or because then [this] fish rises at the time when the Pleiades have begun to tend toward their setting.

[33] Hamio saxatilis dextra sinistraque lateribus virgis puniceis perpetuis aliisque discoloribus designatur; dictus hamio quia non capitur nisi hamo.

[33] The rock-dwelling hamio is designated on the right and left sides by continuous puniceous rods/stripes and by other variegated ones; called hamio because it is not captured except by a hook.

[34] Echenais, parvus et semipedalis pisciculus, nomen sumpsit quod navem adhaerendo retineat. Ruant licet venti, saeviant procellae, navis tamen quasi radicata in mari stare videtur nec moveri, non retinendo, sed tantummodo adhaerendo. Hunc Latini moram appellaverunt, eo quod cogat stare navigia.

[34] Echenais, a small and half‑foot‑long little fish, took its name because by adhering it retains a ship. Let the winds rush down, let the squalls rage, yet the ship seems to stand in the sea as if rooted and not to move, not by retaining, but only by adhering. The Latins called it delay (mora), for the reason that it compels vessels to stand still.

[35] Vranoscopus vocatur ab oculo, quem in capite habet, a quo semper supra intendit.

[35] Vranoscopus is so called from the eye that it has on its head, by which it always looks upward.

[36] Millago nominatus, quia evolat super aquam. Quoties autem cernitur extra aquam volitans, tempestates mutari.

[36] Millago, so named because it flies out over the water. But whenever it is seen fluttering outside the water, the tempests are changed.

[37] Squatus dictus, quod sit squamis acutus. Vnde et eius cute lignum politur.

[37] He is called squatus, because he is acute with scales. Whence also with its skin wood is polished.

[38] Civitas Syriae, quae nunc Tyrus dicitur, olim Sarra vocabatur a pisce quodam qui illic abundat, quem lingua sua 'sar' appellant; ex quo derivatum est huius similitudinis pisciculos sardas sardinasque vocari.

[38] A city of Syria, which is now called Tyre, was formerly named Sarra from a certain fish which abounds there, which in their own tongue they call "sar"; from which it is derived that the little fishes of this likeness are called sardae and sardines.

[39] Allec pisciculiis ad liquorem salsamentorum idoneus; unde et nuncupatus.

[39] Allec, with little fishes, is suitable for the liquor of salsaments; whence also it is so named.

[40] Aphorus pisciculus, qui propter exiguitatem hamo capi non potest. Anguillae similitudo anguis nomen dedit.

[40] Aphorus, a little fish, which on account of its exiguity cannot be taken by a hook. The eel’s resemblance to the snake gave it its name.

[41] Origo huius ex limo; unde et quando capitur, adeo lenis est ut quanto fortius presseris, tanto citius elabitur. Ferunt autem Orientis fluvium Gangen anguillas tricenis pedibus gignere. Anguillae vino necatae, qui ex eo biberint taedium vini habent.

[41] The origin of this is from mud; and hence, when it is taken, it is so smooth that the more strongly you press it, the more quickly it slips away. They report, moreover, that the river Ganges of the East begets eels thirty feet long. Eels killed in wine cause those who have drunk of it to have a distaste for wine.

[42] Draco marinus aculeos in branchiis habet ad caudam spectantes, qui dum percusserit, quaqua ferit, venenum fundit [unde et vocatus].

[42] The sea-dragon has spines in its gills facing toward the tail, which, when it strikes, wherever it hits, it pours out venom [whence also it is called].

[43] Muraenam Graeci MURAINAN vocant, eo quod conplicet se in circulos. Hanc feminini tantum sexus esse tradunt et concipere a serpente: ob id a piscatoribus tamquam a serpente sibilo evocatur et capitur. Ictu autem fustis difficulter interimitur, ferula protinus.

[43] The Greeks call the muraena MURAINAN, because it coils itself into circles. They hand down that it is only of the female sex and conceives from a serpent: on account of this it is summoned by fishermen with a hiss, as by a serpent, and captured. By the blow of a club it is killed with difficulty; by a ferule, immediately.

Animam in cauda habere certum est; nam capite percusso vix eam interimi, cauda statim exanimari.

It is certain that it has its life in the tail; for when the head is struck, it is scarcely put to death, but on the tail’s being struck, it is immediately exanimated.

[44] Congrus ä Polypus, id est multipes; plurimos enim nexus habet. Iste ingeniosus hamum appetens brachiis conplectit, non morsu, nec prius dimittit quam escam circumroserit.

[44] The Conger and the Polypus, that is, the many-footed; for it has very many nexuses. This ingenious creature, as it goes after the hook, embraces it with its arms, not with a bite, nor does it let go before it has gnawed the bait all around.

[45] Torpedo vocata, eo quod corpus torpescere faciat, si eam quisque viventem tangat. Narrat Plinius Secundus (N. H. 32,7): 'Ex Indico mare torpedo etiam procul et e longinquo, vel si hasta virgaque adtingatur, quamvis praevalidos lacertos torpescere, quamlibet ad cursum veloces alligare pedes.' Tanta enim vis eius est ut etiam aura corporis sui adficiat membra.

[45] Called the Torpedo, because it makes the body grow torpid, if anyone touches it while it is alive. Pliny the Second recounts (N. H. 32,7): 'From the Indian Ocean the torpedo, even at a distance and from far away, even if it is touched by a spear or a rod, makes even very strong upper arms grow torpid, and ties up the feet, however swift for running.' For so great is its force that even the aura of its body affects the limbs.

[46] Sepia dicitur, quia sepibus interclusa facilius capitur: in coeundo obscenum genus; ore enim concipit sicut vipera. Cuius atramento tanta vis est ut lucernae addito Aethiopas videri ablato priori lumine quidam tradant.

[46] The sepia is so called because, shut in by hedges, it is more easily captured: in mating it is an obscene kind; for it conceives by the mouth like the viper. Of its ink the power is so great that, added to a lamp, some hand down that Ethiopians are seen, the former light having been removed.

[47] Lulligo. Tradunt in Oceano Mauretaniae, non procul a Lixo flumine, tantam multitudinem lulliginum evolare ex aqua ut etiam naves demergere possint.

[47] Lulligo. They relate that in the Ocean of Mauretania, not far from the river Lixus, so great a multitude of lulligines (squids) springs out from the water that they can even sink ships.

[48] Conchae et cochleae hac ex causa vocatae, quia deficiente luna cavantur, id est evacuantur. Omnium enim clausorum maris animalium atque concharum incremento lunae membra turgescunt, defectu evacuantur. Luna enim cum in augmento fuerit, auget humorem; cum vero in defectum venerit, humores minuuntur; hoc enim Physici dicunt.

[48] Conchs and cochleae are so called for this reason: because when the moon is in defect (waning) they are hollowed, that is, emptied. For in all the closed animals of the sea and in shellfish, with the moon’s increase the limbs swell; with its defect they are emptied. For the moon, when it is in augmentation, augments the moisture; but when it has come into defect, the humors are diminished—this, the Physici say.

Conchae autem primae positionis nomen, cochleae vero per diminutionem, quasi conchleae.

Conchae, moreover, is a name of the primary formation; cochleae, however, is by diminution, as if conchleae.

[49] Concharum multa genera sunt; inter quas et margaritiferae, quae ðoceloeð dicuntur, in quarum carne pretiosus calculus solidatur. De quibus tradunt hi qui de animantium scripsere naturis [eo] quod nocturno tempore litora appetant, et ex caelesti rore margaritum concipiunt; unde et ðoceloeð nominantur.

[49] There are many kinds of shells; among which also the pearl-bearing (margaritiferous) ones, which are called ðoceloeð, in whose flesh a precious stone is solidified. About these, those who have written on the natures of living beings hand down that in the night-time they seek the shores, and from the heavenly dew they conceive the pearl; whence they are also named ðoceloeð.

[50] Murex cochlea est maris, dicta ab acumine et asperitate, quae alio nomine conchilium nominatur, propter quod circumcisa ferro lacrimas purpurei coloris emittat, ex quibus purpura tingitur: et inde ostrum appellatum quod haec tinctura ex testae humore elicitur.

[50] The murex is a sea-cochlea, named from its acumen and asperity, which by another name is called conchilium, because, when cut around with iron, it emits tears of a purple color, from which purple is dyed; and from this it is called ostrum, because this tincture is drawn out from the moisture of the shell.

[51] Cancros vocari, quia conchae sunt crura habentes: inimica ostreis animalia. Eorum enim carnibus vivunt miro ingenio; nam quia valida testa eius aperiri non potest, explorat quando ostrea claustra testarum aperiat, tunc cancer latenter lapillum inicit atque inpedita conclusione ostreae carnes erodit. Tradunt quidam decem cancris cum ocimi manipulo alligatis omnes qui ibi sunt scorpiones ad eum locum coituros.

[51] They are called crabs, because they are shells having legs: animals inimical to oysters. For they live on their flesh by a wondrous ingenious device; for since its strong shell cannot be opened, it watches for when the oyster opens the bars of its shells; then the crab secretly throws in a little pebble, and with the closure impeded it gnaws the oyster’s flesh. Some hand down that, with ten crabs tied together with a handful of basil, all the scorpions that are there will gather to that place.

Duo sunt autem genera cancrorum: fluviales et marini.

There are, however, two kinds of crabs: fluvial and marine.

[52] Ostrea dicta est a testa, quibus mollities interior carnis munitur; Graeci enim testam OSTRA vocant. Ostrea autem neutrum, carnes eius feminino dicunt.

[52] The oyster is named from testa, the shell, by which the softness of the inner flesh is fortified; for the Greeks call the shell OSTRA. But ostrea is neuter; its flesh they speak of in the feminine.

[53] Musculi sunt, ut praediximus (ß 6), cochleae a quorum lacte concipiunt ostreae; et dicti musculi quasi masculi.

[53] Mussels are, as we have fore-said (ß 6), cockles, from whose milk the oysters conceive; and they are called musculi as if masculi.

[54] Pelorides a Peloro promontorio Siciliae, ubi abundant, cognominatae sunt (Virg. Aen. 3,687):

[54] Pelorides have been cognominated from Pelorus, the promontory of Sicily, where they abound (Virg. Aen. 3,687):

Ecce autem Boreas angusta ab sede Pelori.

Behold, however, Boreas from the narrow seat of Pelorus.

[55] Vngues a similitudine humanarum unguium dictae.

[55] Claws are named from the likeness to human nails.

[56] Testudo dictus, eo quod tegmine testae sit adopertus in camerae modum. Sunt autem quattuor genera: terrestres, maritimae, lutariae, id est in caeno et paludibus viventes; quartum genus fluviales, quae in dulci aqua vivunt. Tradunt aliqui, quod incredibile est, tardius ire navigia testudinis pedem dextrum vehentia.

[56] The tortoise is so called because it is covered with the covering of a shell in the manner of a vaulted chamber. There are, moreover, four genera: terrestrial, maritime, lutarian—that is, living in mud and marshes; the fourth genus, fluvial, which live in fresh water. Some transmit—though it is incredible—that ships go more slowly when carrying a tortoise’s right foot.

[57] Echinus a terrestre echino nomen traxit, quem vulgus iricium vocant; cuius testula duplex, spinis aculeata in modum castanearum, quando adhuc coopertae de arboribus cadunt. Caro eius mollis et minio similis, ðurisð tribus modis: ut testudo ac peloris et cochlea. Nam et quod edimus et ubi caro inest utrumque dicitur peloris.

[57] The echinus drew its name from the terrestrial echinus, which the common folk call the hedgehog; its little shell is double, bristling with spines in the manner of chestnuts, when they, still covered, fall from the trees. Its flesh is soft and similar to minium; there are hard-shelled kinds in three modes: as the tortoise, the peloris, and the snail. For both what we eat and the place where the flesh is contained are each called peloris.

[58] Ranae a garrulitate vocatae, eo quod circa genitales strepunt paludes, et sonos vocis inportunis clamoribus reddunt. Ex his quaedam aquaticae dicuntur, quaedam palustres, quaedam rubetae, ob id, quia in vepribus vivunt, grandiores cunctarum. Aliae calamites vocantur, quoniam inter arundines fruticesque vivunt, minimae omnium et viridissimae; mutae et sine voce sunt.

[58] Frogs are called from their garrulity, because around the breeding marshes they make a din, and render the sounds of their voice with importunate clamors. Of these, some are called aquatic, some palustral, some rubetae, for this reason, because they live in brambles—the largest of them all. Others are called calamites, since they live among reeds and shrubs—the smallest of all and the greenest; they are mute and without voice.

[59] Agredulae ranae parvae in sicco vel agris morantes; unde et nuncupatae. Negant quidam canes latrare, quibus in offa rana viva fuerit data.

[59] Agredulae frogs are small, lingering on dry ground or in the fields; whence also they are so named. Some say that dogs do not bark, to whom a live frog has been given in a mouthful.

[60] Sfungia a fingere, id est nitidare et extergere, dicta. Afranius (415):

[60] Sponge is said to be from fingere, that is, to make bright and to wipe clean. Afranius (415):

Accedo ad te, ut tibi cervicem fingam linteo,

I approach you, so that I may polish your neck with a linen cloth,

id est extergam. Cicero (pro Sest. 77): 'Effingebatur sfungiis sanguis,' id est extergebatur.

that is, I wipe off. Cicero (Pro Sestio 77): 'The blood was being wiped off with sponges,' that is, it was being wiped off.

Animal autem esse docetur cruore inhaerente petris. Vnde et dum absciditur sanguinem remittit.

But that it is an animal is shown by the blood adhering to the rocks. Whence also, while it is being cut off, it emits blood.

[61] Nam alia sunt viventia in aquis et discurrunt, ut pisces; alia, quae stant fixa, ut ostreae, echini, sfungiae. Ex his alias mares dici, eo quod tenues sint fistulae spissioresque; alias feminas, quae maioribus fistulis sunt ac perpetuis; alias duriores, quas Graeci appellant TRAGOUS, et nos hircosas dicere possumus ob asperitatem sui.

[61] For some are living things in the waters and dart about, like fishes; others stand fixed, like oysters, echini, sponges. Of these, some are said to be males, because their fistulas are thin and more densely set; others females, which are endowed with larger and continuous fistulas; others are harder, which the Greeks call TRAGOUS, and we can call goatish on account of their roughness.

[62] Mollissimum genus earum penicilli vocantur, eo quod aptae sint ad oculorum tumores, et ad extergendas lippitudines utiles. Candidae sfungiae cura fiunt; per aestatem enim ad solem sternuntur, et sicut cera Punica candorem bibunt.

[62] The softest kind of them are called penicilli (“little brushes”), because they are suited for swellings of the eyes, and are useful for wiping away bleary-eye discharges. White sponges come to be by curing; for in summer they are spread out to the sun, and, like Punic wax, they drink in whiteness.

[63] Animalium omnium in aquis viventium nomina centum quadraginta quattuor Plinius (32,142) ait, divisa in generibus beluarum, serpentium communium terrae et aquae, cancrorum, concharum, lucustarum, peloridum, polyporum, solearum, lacertorum, et lulliginum, et huic similia; ex quibus multa quodam naturae intellectu ordinem temporum suorum agnoscunt, quaedam vero [in suis locis sine mutatione vagantur].

[63] Pliny (32,142) says that the names of all animals living in the waters are 144, divided into genera of beasts, of serpents common to land and water, of crabs, of shellfish, of lobsters, of pelorids, of polyps, of soles, of lizards, and of loligins, and the like; of which many, by a certain intellect of nature, recognize the order of their own seasons, but some [in their own places wander without change].

[64] In piscibus autem feminis aliae commixtione masculi concipiunt et pariunt catulos; aliae ponunt ova sine masculi susceptione concepta, qui idem insequens, sui seminis iactu perfunduntur; et quae hoc munere fuerint afflata generabilia fiunt, quae vero perfusa non fuerint sterilia perseverant aut putrescunt.

[64] But among fishes, as for the females, some conceive by the commixture of the male and bring forth young; others lay eggs conceived without the male’s reception, which, the same male following after, are drenched by the casting of his own seed; and those that have been breathed upon by this gift become generable, whereas those that have not been drenched remain sterile or putrefy.

VII. DE AVIBVS.

7. OF BIRDS.

[1] Vnum nomen avium, sed genus diversum. Nam sicut specie sibi differunt, ita et naturae diversitate. Nam aliae simplices sunt, ut columbae; aliae astutae, ut perdix; aliae ad manum se subiciunt, ut accipiter; aliae reformidant, ut garamantes; aliae hominum conversatione delectantur, ut hirundo; aliae in desertis secretam vitam diligunt, ut turtur; aliae solo semine reperto pascuntur, ut anser; aliae carnes edunt et rapinis intendunt, ut milvus; aliae enchoriae, quae manent in locis semper, ut [struthio]; aliae adventiciae, quae propriis temporibus revertuntur, ut ciconiae, hirundines; aliae congregae, id est gregatim volantes, ut sturni et coturnices; aliae solivagae, id est solitariae propter insidias depraedandi, ut aquila; accipiter et quaecumque ita sunt; aliae vocibus strepunt, ut hirundo; aliae cantus edunt dulcissimos, ut cygnus et merula; aliae verba et voces hominum imitantur, ut psittacus et pica.

[1] One name for birds, but a diverse genus. For just as they differ from one another in species, so also in diversity of nature. For some are simple, as doves; others astute, as the partridge; others subject themselves to the hand, as the hawk; others shrink back in fear, as the Garamantes; others delight in the conversation of men, as the swallow; others love a hidden life in deserts, as the turtledove; others feed only on seed found, as the goose; others eat flesh and set themselves to rapine, as the kite; others are indigenous, who remain always in their places, as the [ostrich]; others are adventitious, who return at their proper times, as storks and swallows; others are congregate, that is, flying in flocks, as starlings and quails; others are solivagous, that is, solitary on account of the ambushes of depredation, as the eagle, the hawk, and whatever are thus; others make a din with their voices, as the swallow; others produce most sweet songs, as the swan and blackbird; others imitate the words and voices of men, as the parrot and magpie.

[2] Sed alia sicut genere, ita et moribus innumerabilia; nam volucrum quot genera sint invenire quemque non posse. Neque enim omnis Indiae et Aethiopiae aut Scythiae deserta quis penetrare potuit, qui earum genus vel differentias nosset.

[2] But others, just as in genus, so also in mores, are innumerable; for one cannot discover how many genera of birds there are. For no one has been able to penetrate all the deserts of India and Ethiopia or of Scythia, to know their genus or their differences.

[3] Aves dictae, eo quod vias certas non habeant, sed per avia quaque discurrunt. Alites, quod alis alta intendant, et ad sublimia remigio alarum conscendant.

[3] They are called birds, aves, because they do not have fixed ways, but run about through pathless places everywhere. They are called alites, because with wings they stretch toward the heights, and to the sublime they ascend by the rowing of their wings.

[4] Volucres a volando. Nam unde volare, inde et ambulare dicimus. Vola enim dicitur media pars pedis sive manus; et in avibus vola pars media alarum, quarum motu pinnae agitantur; inde volucres.

[4] Winged creatures (volucres) from flying (volando). For from the same source whence we say to fly (volare), thence also we say to amble (ambulare). For the ‘vola’ is called the middle part of the foot or of the hand; and in birds the vola is the middle part of the wings, by whose motion the feathers are agitated; hence winged creatures.

[5] Pulli dicuntur omnium avium nati; sed et animalium quadrupedum nati pulli dicuntur, et homo parvus pullus. Recentes igitur nati pulli, eo quod polluti sint. Vnde et vestis nigra pulla dicta est.

[5] The offspring of all birds are called pulli; but the offspring of four-footed animals are also called pulli, and a small human is a pullus. Therefore the newly born are called pulli, because they are polluted. Whence also a black garment is called pulla.

[6] Alae sunt, in quibus pinnae per ordinem fixae volandi exhibent usum. Vocatae autem alae quod his aves conplexos alant ac foveant pullos.

[6] Wings are those in which the feathers, fixed in order, exhibit the use of flying. And they are called wings because with these birds, having their chicks embraced, nourish and warm them.

[7] Pinna a pendendo, id est a volando, dicta; unde et pendere. Volucres enim pinnarum auxilio moventur, quando se aeri mandant.

[7] Pinion is said from ‘hanging’, that is, from ‘flying’; whence also ‘to hang’. For birds are moved with the help of their pinions, when they commit themselves to the air.

[8] Pluma quasi piluma; nam sicut pili in quadrupedum corpore, ita pluma in avibus.

[8] Plume, as it were “pilume”; for just as hairs (pili) are in the body of quadrupeds, so is the plume in birds.

[9] Avium nomina multa a sono vocis constat esse conposita: ut grus, corvus, cygnus, pavo, milvus, ulula, cuculus, graculus et cetera. Varietas enim vocis eorum docuit homines quid nominarentur.

[9] It is established that many names of birds are composed from the sound of the voice: as crane, raven, swan, peacock, kite, owl, cuckoo, jackdaw, and the rest. For the variety of their voice taught men by what they should be named.

[10] Aquila ab acumine oculorum vocata. Tanti enim contuitus esse dicitur, ut cum super maria inmobili pinna feratur nec humanis pateat obtutibus, de tanta sublimitate pisciculos natare videat, ac tormenti instar descendens raptam praedam pinnis ad litus pertrahat.

[10] The eagle is named from the acumen of its eyes. For its sight is said to be of such keenness that, when it is borne over the seas with immobile pinion and is not laid open to human gazes, from such sublimity it sees little fishes swimming, and, descending like a war-engine, it drags the seized prey to the shore with its pinions.

[11] Nam et contra radium solis fertur obtutum non flectere; unde et pullos suos ungue suspensos radiis solis obicit, et quos viderit inmobilem tenere aciem, ut dignos genere conservat; si quos vero inflectere obtutum, quasi degeneres abicit.

[11] For it is also reported not to bend its gaze even against the ray of the sun; whence it likewise exposes its chicks, suspended by the claw, to the sun’s rays, and those whom it has seen to keep an immobile gaze it preserves as worthy of the lineage; but those who do bend the gaze, as if degenerate, it casts away.

[12] Vultur a volatu tardo nominata putatur: magnitudine quippe corporis praepetes volatus non habet. Harum quasdam dicunt concubitu non misceri, et sine copula concipere et generare; natosque earum paene usque ad centum annos procedere. Vultures autem, sicut et aquilae, etiam ultra maria cadavera sentiunt; altius quippe volantes multa, quae montium obscuritate celantur, ex alto illae conspiciunt.

[12] The vulture is thought to be named from its tardy flight: for by reason of the magnitude of its body it does not have swift flights. They say that some of these are not mingled in concubitus, and conceive and generate without copula; and that their offspring live on for almost up to 100 years. Vultures, moreover, just as eagles, sense cadavers even beyond the seas; for flying higher, they from on high descry many things which are concealed by the obscurity of mountains.

[13] Gradipes apud Graecos vocatur avis apud nos tarda, eo quod gravi volatu detenta nequaquam, ut ceterae volucres, adtollitur velocitate pinnarum.

[13] It is called Gradipes among the Greeks, the bird is called among us “slow,” because, held back by a heavy flight, it is by no means, as the other birds, lifted up by the velocity of its pinions.

[14] Grues nomen de propria voce sumpserunt; tali enim sono susurrant. Haec autem dum properant, unam sequuntur ordine litterato. De quibus Lucanus (5,716):

[14] The cranes have taken their name from their own voice; for with such a sound they susurrate. Moreover, when they hasten, they follow one in a lettered order. About which Lucan (5,716):

Et turbata perit dispersis littera pinnis.

And the letter, disturbed, perishes, the pinions dispersed.

Excelsa autem petunt, quo facilius videant quas petant terras.

But they seek the heights, so that they may more easily see which lands they make for.

[15] Castigat autem voce quae cogit agmen: at ubi raucescit, succedit alia: nocte autem excubias dividunt, et ordinem vigiliarum per vices faciunt, tenentes lapillos suspensis digitis, quibus somnos arguant: quod cavendum erit, clamor indicat. Aetatem in illis color prodit; nam senectute nigrescunt.

[15] She who marshals the column chastises with her voice; but when she grows hoarse, another succeeds her: at night, moreover, they divide the watches, and establish the order of vigils by turns, holding pebbles with their digits suspended, by which they make sleep evident; what must be guarded against, a shout indicates. Their age is betrayed in them by color; for with old age they grow black.

[16] Ciconiae vocatae a sono quo crepitant, quasi cicaniae: quem sonum oris potius esse quam vocis, quia eum quatiente rostro faciunt. Hae veris nuntiae, societatis comites, serpentium hostes, maria transvolant, in Asiam collecto agmine pergunt. Cornices duces eas praecedunt, et ipsae quasi exercitus prosequuntur.

[16] Storks, named from the sound with which they rattle, as if “cicaniae”: which sound is rather of the mouth than of the voice, since they make it by shaking the beak. These are heralds of spring, companions of society, enemies of serpents; they fly across the seas, and, the column gathered, they proceed into Asia. Crows as leaders go before them, and they themselves follow as if an army.

[17] Eximia illis circa filios pietas; nam adeo nidos inpensius fovent ut assiduo incubitu plumas exuant. Quantum autem tempus inpenderint in fetibus educandis, tantum et ipsae invicem a pullis suis aluntur.

[17] Exceptional piety is theirs toward their children; for they cherish the nests so earnestly that by assiduous incubation they shed their feathers. Moreover, whatever time they have expended in bringing up the offspring, to that extent they themselves in turn are nourished by their chicks.

[18] Olor avis est quem Graeci KUKNON appellant. Olor autem dictus quod sit totus plumis albus: nullus enim meminit cygnum nigrum; OLON enim Graece totum dicitur. Cygnus autem a canendo est appellatus, eo quod carminis dulcedinem modulatis vocibus fundit.

[18] The olor is a bird which the Greeks call KUKNON. The olor, moreover, is said to be so named because it is entirely white in its plumage: for no one remembers a black cygnus (swan); for OLON in Greek is said “whole.” The cygnus, however, is appellated from singing, in that it pours forth the sweetness of song with modulated voices.

Ideo autem suaviter eum canere, quia collum longum et inflexum habet, et necesse est eluctantem vocem per longum et flexuosum iter varias reddere modulationes.

Therefore he sings sweetly, because he has a long and inflexed neck, and the voice, struggling forth, must render various modulations through a long and flexuous passage.

[19] Ferunt in Hyperboreis partibus praecinentibus citharoedis olores plurimos advolare, apteque admodum concinere. Olores autem Latinum nomen est; nam Graece KUKNOI dicuntur. Nautae vero sibi hunc bonam prognosim facere dicunt, sicut Aemilius ait (4):

[19] They report that in the Hyperborean parts, with citharists preluding, very many swans fly in and harmonize very aptly. Olores, however, is the Latin name; for in Greek they are called KUKNOI. Sailors, indeed, say that this makes for them a good prognosis, as Aemilius says (4):

Cygnus in auspiciis semper laetissimus ales;
hunc optant nautae, quia se non mergit in undas.

The swan, in auspices, is always the happiest bird;
sailors desire him, because he does not submerge himself into the waves.

[20] Struthio Graeco nomine dicitur, quod animal in similitudine avis pinnas habere videtur; tamen de terra altius non elevatur. Ova sua fovere neglegit; sed proiecta tantummodo fotu pulveris animantur.

[20] The ostrich is said by a Greek name, because the animal, in the similitude of a bird, seems to have wings; yet it is not raised higher from the earth. It neglects to brood its eggs; but, cast away, they are animated solely by the warming of the dust.

[21] Ardea vocata quasi ardua, id est propter altos volatus. Lucanus (5,554):

[21] The Ardea is named as if “arduous,” that is, on account of its high flights. Lucan (5,554):

Quodque ausa volare Ardea.

And that the Heron dared to fly.

Formidat enim imbres, et supra nubes evolat, ut procellas nubium sentire non possit. Cum autem altius volaverit, significat tempestatem. Hanc multi Tantalum nominant.

For it dreads showers, and flies out above the clouds, so that it cannot sense the storms of the clouds. But when it has flown higher, it signifies a tempest. Many name this one Tantalus.

[22] Phoenix Arabiae avis, dicta quod colorem phoeniceum habeat, vel quod sit in toto orbe singularis et unica. Nam Arabes singularem 'phoenicem' vocant. Haec quingentis ultra annis vivens, dum se viderit senuisse, collectis aromatum virgulis, rogum sibi instruit, et conversa ad radium solis alarum plausu voluntarium sibi incendium nutrit, sicque iterum de cincribus suis resurgit.

[22] The Phoenix, a bird of Arabia, so called because it has a phoenic (crimson) color, or because it is singular and unique in the whole orb. For the Arabs call a singular thing “phoenix.” This one, living for more than 500 years, when it sees that it has grown old, with little twigs of aromatics gathered, prepares a pyre for itself, and, turned toward the ray of the sun, by the beating of its wings nourishes for itself a voluntary conflagration; and thus again it resurges from its own ashes.

[23] Cinnamolgus et ipsa Arabiae avis, proinde ita vocata quod in excelsis nemoribus texit nidos ex fruticibus cinnami: et quoniam non possunt ibi homines conscendere propter ramorum altitudinem et fragilitatem, eosdem nidos plumbatis appetunt iaculis, ac sic cinnama illa deponunt, et pretiis amplioribus vendunt; [eo] quod cinnamum magis quam alia mercatores probent.

[23] The Cinnamolgus is also itself a bird of Arabia, and accordingly is so called because in lofty groves it weaves nests out of shrubs of cinnamon; and since men cannot ascend there on account of the height and fragility of the branches, they assail those same nests with lead-weighted javelins, and thus they bring down those cinnamons, and sell them at higher prices; [for the reason] that merchants approve cinnamon more than other wares.

[24] Psittacus Indiae litoribus gignitur, colore viridi, torque puniceo, grandi lingua et ceteris avibus latiore. Vnde et articulata verba exprimit, ita ut si eam non videris, hominem loqui putes. Ex natura autem salutat dicens: 'have,' vel CHAIRE.

[24] The parrot is produced on the shores of India, with green color, with a puniceous torque, with a large tongue, broader than that of other birds. Whence also it expresses articulated words, such that, if you have not seen it, you would think a human to be speaking. Moreover, by nature it greets, saying: 'have,' or CHAIRE.

Cetera nomina institutione discit. Hinc est illud (Mart. 14,73):

It learns the other names by instruction. Hence this (Mart. 14,73):

Psittacus a vobis aliorum nomina discam;
hoc didici per me dicere: 'Caesar have.'

I, a parrot, from you will learn the names of others;
this I have learned by myself to say: 'Caesar, hail.'

[25] Alcyon pelagi volucris dicta, quasi ales oceanea, eo quod hieme in stagnis oceani nidos facit pullosque educit: qua excubante fertur extento aequore pelagus silentibus ventis continua septem dierum tranquillitate mitescere, et eius fetibus educandis obsequium ipsa rerum natura praebere.

[25] The Halcyon, a bird of the sea, is so called, as if an oceanic winged creature, because in winter it makes nests in the pools of the ocean and brings up its chicks: while it keeps watch, it is reported that, the surface of the sea being stretched out, the deep, the winds being silent, grows mild with an unbroken seven days’ tranquillity, and that nature itself offers its service for the rearing of its broods.

[26] Pelicanus avis Aegyptia habitans in solitudine Nili fluminis, unde et nomen sumpsit; nam Canopos Aegyptus dicitur. Fertur, si verum sit, eam occidere natos suos, eosque per triduum lugere, deinde se ipsam vulnerare et aspersione sui sanguinis vivificare filios.

[26] The pelican, an Egyptian bird, dwelling in the solitude of the Nile river, whence also it took its name; for Egypt is called Canopus. It is reported, if it be true, that it kills its offspring and mourns them for three days; then it wounds itself and, by an aspersion of its own blood, vivifies its children.

[27] Stymphalidae aves ab Stymphadibus insulis appellatae, ubi plurimum abundant; adversus quas Hercules sagittis est usus. Sunt enim pelagi volucres in insulis habitantes.

[27] The Stymphalidae birds are called after the Stymphades Islands, where they abound most; against which Hercules used arrows. For they are sea-birds dwelling on the islands.

[28] Diomedias aves a sociis Diomedis appellatas, quos ferunt fabulae in easdem volucres fuisse conversos; forma fulicae similes, magnitudine cygnorum, colore candido, duris et grandibus rostris. Sunt autem circa Apuliam in insula Diomedia inter scopulos litorum et saxa volitantes; iudicant inter suos et advenas.

[28] The Diomedean birds, appellated from the companions of Diomedes, whom the fables report to have been converted into these same birds; in form similar to the coot, in the magnitude of swans, white in color, with hard and large beaks. They are, moreover, around Apulia on the island Diomedea, flying among the crags of the shores and the rocks; they judge between their own and strangers.

[29] Nam si Graecus est, propius accedunt et blandiunt; si alienigena, morsu inpugnant et vulnerant, lacrimosis quasi vocibus dolentes vel suam mutationem vel regis interitum. Nam Diomedes ab Illyriis interemptus est. Haec autem aves Latine Diomediae vocantur, Graeci eas ERODIOUS dicunt.

[29] For if he is a Greek, they come nearer and fawn; if a foreigner, they assail with a bite and wound, grieving with, as it were, tearful voices either their own transformation or the death of their king. For Diomedes was slain by the Illyrians. These birds, moreover, are called Diomediae in Latin; the Greeks call them ERODIOUS.

[30] Memnonides aves Aegyptiae appellatae a loco, ubi Memnon periit. Nam catervatim advolare dicuntur ex Aegypto ad Ilium iuxta Memnonis sepulchrum, et proinde eas Ilienses Memnonias vocant. Quinto autem anno ad Ilium veniunt, et cum biduo circumvolaverint, tertia die ineuntes pugnam vicissim se unguibus rostrisque dilacerant.

[30] The Memnonides birds are called Egyptian from the place where Memnon perished. For they are said to flock in from Egypt to Ilium near Memnon’s sepulcher, and accordingly the Ilians call them Memnonian. But in the fifth year they come to Ilium, and when they have circled for two days, on the third day, entering into combat, they in turn lacerate one another with claws and beaks.

[31] Hercyniae aves dictae ab Hercynio saltu Germaniae, ubi nascuntur, quarum pinnae adeo per obscurum emicant ut quamvis nox obtenta densis tenebris sit, ad praesidium itineris dirigendi praeiactae interluceant, cursusque viae pateat indicio plumarum fulgentium.

[31] The Hercynian birds are so called from the Hercynian forest of Germany, where they are born, whose feathers flash forth so much through the obscurity that, although night has been drawn over with dense darkness, when cast ahead for the safeguard of directing the journey they shine in between, and the course of the road lies open by the indication of the gleaming plumes.

[32] Onocrotalon Graeci vocant rostro longo. [Quorum duo genera sunt: aliud aquatile, aliud solitudinis.]

[32] The Greeks call it Onocrotalon, with a long rostrum. [Of which there are two kinds: one aquatic, the other of the wilderness.]

[33] Ibis avis Nili fluminis, quae semetipsam purgat, rostro in anum aquam fundens. Haec serpentium ova vescitur, gratissimam ex eis escam nidis suis deportans.

[33] The ibis, a bird of the river Nile, which purges itself, pouring water with its beak into the anus. This bird feeds on serpents’ eggs, carrying from them a most pleasing food to its nests.

[34] Meropes eosdemque et gaulos, qui parentes suos recondere atque alere dicuntur. Coredulus genus volatile, quasi cor edens.

[34] Meropes, and likewise gauli, who are said to stow away and nourish their parents. Coredulus, a bird-kind, as if “heart-eating.”

[35] Monedula avis, quasi monetula, quae dum aurum invenit, aufert et occultat. Cicero pro Valerio Flacco (76): 'Non plus aurum tibi quam monedulae committendum.'

[35] The monedula, a bird—as if “monetula,” a little coin—which, when it finds gold, carries it off and hides it. Cicero, For Valerius Flaccus (76): 'No more gold should be entrusted to you than to a jackdaw.'

[36] Vespertilio pro tempore nomen accepit, eo quod lucem fugiens crepusculo vespertino circumvolet praecipiti motu acta, et tenuissimis brachiorum membris suspensa; animal murium simile, non tam voce resonans quam stridore; specie quoque volatilis simul et quadrupes, quod in aliis avibus reperiri non solet.

[36] The bat takes its name from the time, because, fleeing the light, at the vespertine twilight it flits around, driven by headlong motion, and is suspended by the very slender membranes of its arms; an animal like to mice, sounding not so much with a voice as with a screech; in appearance also both a winged creature and a quadruped at once, which is not wont to be found in other birds.

[37] Luscinia avis inde nomen sumpsit, quia cantu suo significare solet diei surgentis exortum, quasi lucinia. Eadem et acredula, de qua Cicero in Prognosticis (frag. 6):

[37] The nightingale, a bird, took its name from this, because by its song it is wont to signify the rising of the day as it surges up, as if “lucinia.” The same is also “acredula,” about which Cicero in the Prognostics (frag. 6):

Et matutinos exercet acredula cantus.

And the acredula exercises matutinal songs.

[38] Vlula avis APO TOU OLOLUZEIN, id est a planctu et luctu, nominata; cum enim clamat aut fletum imitatur aut gemitum. Vnde et apud augures si lamentetur tristitiam, tacens ostendere fertur prosperitatem.

[38] The ulula bird, APO TOU OLOLUZEIN, that is, from plaint and mourning, is named; for when it cries it either imitates weeping or a groan. Whence also among the augurs, if it laments it is said to indicate sadness; being silent, it is said to show prosperity.

[39] Bubo a sono vocis conpositum nomen habet, avis feralis, onusta quidem plumis, sed gravi semper detenta pigritia: in sepulcris die noctuque versatur, et semper commorans in cavernis. De qua Ovidius (Met. 5,549):

[39] The bubo has a name composed from the sound of its voice, a funeral bird, indeed laden with feathers, but always held fast by heavy sloth: it haunts tombs by day and by night, and is always lingering in caverns. About which Ovid (Met. 5,549):

Foedaque fit volucris venturi nuntia luctus,
ignavus bubo dirum mortalibus omen.

And the foul bird becomes a messenger of coming mourning,
the slothful bubo-owl, a dire omen for mortals.

Denique apud augures malum portendere fertur: nam cum in urbe visa fuerit, solitudinem significare dicunt.

Finally, among the augurs it is reported to portend evil: for when it has been seen in the city, they say it signifies solitude.

[40] Noctua dicitur pro eo quod nocte circumvolat et per diem non possit videre; nam exorto splendore solis, visus illius hebetatur. Hanc autem insula Cretensis non habet; et si veniat aliunde, statim moritur. Noctua autem non est bubo; nam bubo maior est.

[40] The noctua is so called because it flies around at night and cannot see during the day; for when the brightness of the sun has arisen, its sight is dulled. The island of Crete does not have this; and if it comes from elsewhere, it dies at once. The noctua, however, is not the bubo; for the bubo is larger.

[41] Nycticorax ipsa est noctua, quia noctem amat. Est enim avis lucifuga, et solem videre non patitur.

[41] The Nycticorax is the owl itself, because it loves the night. For it is a lucifuge bird, and it does not tolerate seeing the sun.

[42] Strix nocturna avis, habens nomen de sono vocis; quando enim clamat stridet. De qua Lucanus (6,689):

[42] The strix, a nocturnal bird, having its name from the sound of its voice; for when it cries it screeches. About which Lucan (6,689):

Quod trepidus bubo, quod strix nocturna queruntur.

What the trembling horned owl, what the nocturnal screech-owl lament.

Haec avis vulgo amma dicitur, ab amando parvulos; unde et lac praebere fertur nascentibus.

This bird is commonly called amma, from loving little ones; whence it is said even to offer milk to the newborn.

[43] Corvus, sive corax, nomen a sono gutturis habet, quod voce coracinet. Fertur haec avis quod editis pullis escam plene non praebeat, priusquam in eis per pinnarum nigredinem similitudinem proprii coloris agnoscat; postquam vero eos tetros plumis aspexerit, in toto agnitos abundantius pascit. Hic prior in cadaveribus oculum petit.

[43] The corvus, or corax, has its name from the sound of the throat, since it coracinates with its voice. It is reported of this bird that, when its chicks are born, it does not fully provide food before it recognizes in them, through the blackness of the feathers, a similitude of its own color; but after it has seen them dusky with plumes, thus recognized in every respect, it feeds them more abundantly. This one is first to aim at the eye in cadavers.

[44] Cornix, annosa avis, apud Latinos Graeco nomine appellatur; quam aiunt augures hominum curas significationibus agere, insidiarum vias monstrare, futura praedicere. Magnum nefas haec credere ut Deus consilia sua cornicibus mandet. Huius inter multa auspicia tribuunt etiam pluvias portendere vocibus; unde est illud (Virg.

[44] The crow, a long-lived bird, is called among the Latins by a Greek name; which the augurs say conducts the concerns of men by significations, shows the ways of ambushes, predicts things to come. It is a great impiety to believe these things, that God entrusts his counsels to crows. Among this bird’s many auspices they ascribe also that it portends rains by its voices; whence is that (Virg.

Georg. 1,388):

Georgics 1, 388):

Tunc cornix plena pluviam vocat inproba voce.

Then the crow, replete, calls the rain with an immoderate voice.

[45] Graculus a garrulitate nuncupatus; non, ut quidam volunt, pro eo ut gregatim volent; cum sit manifestum ex voce eos nuncupari. Est enim loquacissimum genus et vocibus inportunum.

[45] The jackdaw is named from garrulity; not, as some wish, on the ground that they fly in flocks; since it is manifest that they are named from the voice. For it is a most loquacious kind and importunate with its cries.

[46] Picae quasi poeticae, quod verba in discrimine vocis exprimat, ut homo. Per ramos enim arborum pendulae inportuna garrulitate sonantes, et si linguas in sermone nequeunt explicare, sonum tamen humanae vocis imitantur. De qua congrue quidam ait (Mart. 14,76):

[46] Magpies are as it were poetical, because they express words with a discrimination of voice, like a man. For, pendulous among the branches of trees, they resound with importunate garrulity; and although they cannot unfold their tongues in discourse, nevertheless they imitate the sound of the human voice. About which someone has aptly said (Mart. 14,76):

Pica loquax certa dominum te voce saluto:
si me non videas, esse negabis avem.

Loquacious magpie, with a sure voice I salute you, master:
if you do not see me, you will deny that I am a bird.

[47] Picus a Pico Saturni filio nomen sumpsit, eo quod eam in auspiciis utebatur. Nam ferunt hanc avem quiddam habere divinum, illo indicio quod in quacumque arbore nidificaverit, clavum, vel quidquid aliud fixum, diu haerere non potest quin statim excidat, ubi ea insederit. Iste est picus Martius; nam alia est pica.

[47] The woodpecker took its name from Picus, son of Saturn, because he used it in auspices. For they say this bird has something divine, with this indication: that on whatever tree it has nested, a nail, or whatever else fastened in, cannot long adhere without immediately falling out, when it has perched there. This is the woodpecker of Mars; for the magpie is another.

[48] Pavo nomen de sono vocis habet; cuius caro tam dura est ut putredinem vix sentiat, nec facile coquatur. De quo quidam sic ait (Mart. 13,70):

[48] The peacock has its name from the sound of its voice; whose flesh is so hard that it scarcely feels putrefaction, nor is it easily cooked. Concerning which someone thus says (Mart. 13,70):

Miraris, quotiens gemmantes explicat alas,
si potes hunc saevo tradere, dure, coco.

You marvel, whenever he unfolds his bejeweled wings,
if you can hand him over to the savage cook, you hard‑hearted one.

[49] Phasianus a Phaside insula Graeciae, unde primum asportatus est, appellatus. Testatur id vetus distichon illud (Mart. 13,72):

[49] The pheasant is appellated from Phasis, an island of Greece, whence it was first carried off. That old distich bears witness to it (Mart. 13,72):

Argiva primo sum transportata carina:
ante mihi notum nil nisi Phasis erat.

I was first transported by an Argive keel:
before, nothing was known to me save the Phasis.

[50] Gallus a castratione vocatus; inter ceteras enim aves huic solo testiculi adimuntur. Veteres enim abscisos gallos vocabant. Sicut autem a leone leaena et a dracone dracaena, ita a gallo gallina.

[50] The cock is so named from castration; for among the other birds, to this one alone are the testicles removed. For the ancients used to call the cut-off ones “galli.” And just as from lion comes lioness and from dragon dracaena (a dragoness), so from cock comes hen.

Cuius membra, ut ferunt quidam, si auro liquescenti misceantur, consumi.

Whose limbs, as some relate, if they are mixed with liquescent gold, are consumed.

[51] Ans ab assiduitate natandi aptum nomen accepit. Ex quo genere quaedam germanae dicuntur, quod plus ceteris nutriant.

[51] The duck received an apt name from the assiduity of swimming. Of this kind certain are called “germanae,” because they nourish more than the others.

[52] Anseri nomen ans dedit per derivationem, vel a similitudine, vel quod et ipsa natandi frequentiam habeat. Iste vigilias noctis assiduitate clangoris testatur. Nullum autem animal ita odorem hominis sentit ut anser; unde et clangore eius Gallorum ascensus in Capitolio deprehensus est.

[52] The goose received its name from the duck by derivation, either from a likeness, or because it too has a frequency of swimming. This one attests the watches of the night by the assiduity of its honking. Moreover, no animal so perceives the odor of a human as the goose; whence also by its honking the ascent of the Gauls upon the Capitol was detected.

[53] Fuliga dicta, quod caro eius leporinam sapiat; LAGOS enim lepus dicitur, unde et apud Graecos LAGOS vocatur. Est autem avis stagnensis, habens nidos in medio aquae, vel in petris quas aquae circumdant, maritimoque semper delectatur profundo. Quae dum tempestatem praesenserit, fugiens in vado ludit.

[53] It is called Fuliga, because its flesh tastes leporine; for LAGOS means hare, whence among the Greeks it is called LAGOS. It is moreover a bird of pools, having nests in the middle of the water, or on rocks which the waters surround, and it always delights in the maritime deep. When it has sensed a storm in advance, fleeing it plays in the shallow.

[54] Mergis ab assiduitate mergendi nomen hoc haesit. Saepe autem demisso in profundum capite aurarum signa sub fluctibus colligunt, et praevidentes aequoris tempestatem cum clamore ad litora tendunt. Nam in pelago iam gravissimam esse tempestatem, cum ad litora mergi confugerint.

[54] To the mergi this name has stuck from the assiduity of submerging. Often, with the head sent down into the deep, they gather signs of the breezes beneath the waves, and, foreseeing a tempest of the sea, they head for the shores with a clamor. For there is already a most grievous storm on the open sea, when the mergi have taken refuge at the shores.

[55] Accipiter avis animo plus armata quam ungulis, virtutem maiorem in minori corpore gestans. Hic ab accipiendo, id est a capiendo, nomen sumpsit. Est enim avis rapiendis aliis avibus avida, ideoque vocatur accipiter, hoc est raptor.

[55] The hawk is a bird armed more in spirit than in talons, bearing greater virtue in a smaller body. It took its name from taking (ab accipiendo), that is, from seizing (a capiendo). For it is a bird eager for snatching other birds, and therefore it is called accipiter, that is, a raptor.

Vnde et Paulus Apostolus dicit (2 Cor. 11,20): 'Sustinetis enim, si quis accipit'; ut enim diceret 'si quis rapit', dixit 'si quis accipit'.

Whence also the Apostle Paul says (2 Cor. 11,20): 'For you put up with it, if someone takes'; for, in order to say 'if someone seizes,' he said 'if someone takes.'

[56] Fertur autem accipitres circa pullos suos inpios esse; nam dum viderint eos posse tentare volatus, nullas eis praebent escas; sed verberant pinnis et a nido praecipitant, atque a tenero conpellunt ad praedam, ne forte adulti pigrescant.

[56] It is said, moreover, that accipiters are impious toward their own chicks; for when they see that they are able to attempt flights, they provide them no food; rather they lash them with their wings and cast them headlong from the nest, and from tender years they compel them to prey, lest perhaps, once grown, they grow sluggish.

[57] Capus Itala lingua dicitur a capiendo. Hunc nostri falconem vocant, quod incurvis digitis sit.

[57] “Capus” is said in the Italian tongue from capiendo, “taking.” Our people call this one “falcon,” because it has incurved digits (talons).

[58] Milvus mollis et viribus et volatu, quasi mollis avis, unde et nuncupatus; rapacissimus tamen et semper domesticis avibus insidiator.

[58] The kite is soft both in strength and in flight, as if a soft bird, whence also it is named; yet it is most rapacious and always an ambusher of domestic birds.

[59] Ossifragus vulgo appellatur avis quae ossa ab alto dimittit et frangit. Vnde et a frangendo ossa nomen accepit.

[59] The ossifrage is commonly appellated the bird which lets bones fall from on high and breaks them. Whence also, from the breaking of bones, it received its name.

[60] Turtur de voce vocatur; avis pudica, et semper in montium iugis et in desertis solitudinibus commorans. Tecta enim hominum et conversationem fugit, et commoratur in silvis. [Quae etiam hieme deplumata in truncis arborum concavis habitare perbibetur.] Cuius e contrario columba hospitia humana diligit; domorum blanda semper habitatrix.

[60] The turtledove is named from its voice; a modest/chaste bird, and always abiding on the ridges of mountains and in desert solitudes. For it flees the roofs of men and conversation, and it dwells in the woods. [Which also in winter, deplumed, is reported to dwell in the hollow trunks of trees.] By contrast, the dove loves human lodgings; a winsome inhabitant of houses always.

[61] Columbae dictae, quod earum colla ad singulas conversiones colores mutent; aves mansuetae, et in hominum multitudine conversantes, ac sine felle; quas antiqui Venerias nuncupabant, eo quod nidos frequentant, et osculo amorem concipiant.

[61] Doves are so-called, because their necks change colors at each single turning; tame birds, and conversing in the multitude of humans, and without gall; whom the ancients named Venerean, because they frequent nests, and conceive love by a kiss.

[62] Palumbes [eo quod sint farsae, a pabulo; quas vulgus titos vocant] avis casta ex moribus appellatur, quod comes sit castitatis; nam dicitur quod amisso corporali consortio solitaria incedat, nec carnalem copulam ultra requirat.

[62] Palumbes [because they are stuffed, from provender; which the common folk call “titos”] is called, from its mores, a chaste bird, because it is a companion of chastity; for it is said that, with the bodily consort lost, it goes solitary, nor thereafter seeks carnal coupling.

[63] Perdix de voce nomen habet, avis dolosa atque inmunda; nam masculus in masculum insurgit, et obliviscitur sexum libido praeceps. Adeo autem fraudulenta, ut alteri ova diripiens foveat; sed fraus fructum non habet: denique dum pulli propriae vocem genetricis audierint, naturali quodam instinctu hanc quae fovit relinquunt, et ad eandem quae genuit revertuntur.

[63] The partridge has its name from its voice, a deceitful and unclean bird; for the male rises upon the male, and headlong libido forgets the distinction of sex. So fraudulent, moreover, that, plundering another’s eggs, it broods them; but the fraud has no fruit: finally, when the chicks have heard the voice of their own mother, by a certain natural instinct they leave the one who brooded them, and return to the very one who bore them.

[64] Coturnices a sono vocis dictas, quas Graeci ORTUGAS vocant, eo quod visae fuerint primum in Ortygia insula. Haec adveniendi habent tempora; nam aestate depulsa maria transmeant.

[64] Quails, named from the sound of their voice, which the Greeks call ORTUGAS, because they are said to have been first seen on the island Ortygia. These have set times of arrival; for, summer having been driven away, they cross the seas.

[65] Ortygometra dicitur quae gregem ducit. Eam terrae propinquantem accipiter videns rapit; ac propterea cura est universis ducem sollicitare generis externi, per quam caveant prima discrimina. Cibos gratissimos habent semina venenorum; quam ob causam eas veteres vesci interdixerunt.

[65] The one that leads the flock is called an Ortygometra. A hawk, seeing her drawing near to land, snatches her; and therefore it is a concern to all to solicit a leader of a foreign kind, by whom they may guard against the first dangers. They have as most pleasing foods the seeds of venoms; for which cause the ancients interdicted eating them.

Solum enim hoc animal, sicut et homo, caducum patitur morbum.

For this animal alone, as also man, suffers from the falling sickness (epilepsy).

[66] Vpupam Graeci appellant eo quod stercora humana consideret, et foetenti pascatur fimo; avis spurcissima, cristis extantibus galeata, semper in sepulcris et humano stercore commorans. Cuius sanguine quisquis se inunxerit, dormitum pergens daemones suffocantes se videbit.

[66] The Greeks call it the hoopoe because it examines human excrements and feeds on fetid dung; a most filthy bird, helmeted with jutting crests, always lingering in tombs and in human excrement. Whoever anoints himself with its blood, going to sleep, will see demons choking him.

[67] Tucos, quos Hispani ciculos vocant, a voce propria nominatos. Hi veniendi habent tempus, milvorum scapulis suscepti propter breves et parvos volatus, ne per longa aeris spatia fatigati deficiant.

[67] The tucos, whom the Spaniards call ciculos, are named from their own voice. They have a season for coming, being taken up on the shoulders of kites because of their short and small flights, lest, wearied, they fail over long stretches of the air.

[68] Horum salivae cicadas gignunt. Passeres sunt minuta volatilia, a parvitate vocata; unde et pusilli parvi.

[68] The saliva of these engenders cicadas. Sparrows are minute flying creatures, named from smallness; whence also the pusilli are small.

[69] Merula antiquitus medula vocabatur, eo quod modulet. Alii merulam aiunt vocatam quia sola volat, quasi mera volans. Haec cum in omnibus locis nigra sit, in Achaia autem candida est.

[69] The blackbird was of old called “medula,” because it modulates. Others say the blackbird is so named because it flies alone, as if “mere-flying.” Though it is black in all places, in Achaia, however, it is white.

[70] Erundo dicta, quod cibos non sumat residens, sed in aere capiat escas et edat; garrula avis, per tortuosos orbes et flexuosos circuitus pervolans, et in nidis construendis educandisque fetibus sollertissima; habens etiam quiddam praescium, quod lapsura deserat nec appetat culmina. A diris quoque avibus non inpetitur, nec umquam praeda est. Maria transvolat, ibique hieme commoratur.

[70] The swallow is so named because it does not take its food while sitting, but catches its morsels in the air and eats; a garrulous bird, flying through tortuous orbits and flexuous circuits, and most skillful in constructing nests and in rearing offspring; having also something prescient, namely that it abandons and does not seek rooftops that are going to collapse. Nor is it assailed by dire birds, nor is it ever prey. It flies across the seas, and there in winter it sojourns.

[71] Turdos a tarditate dictos; hiemis enim confinio se referunt. Turdela quasi maior turdus; cuius stercore viscum generare putatur. Vnde et proverbium apud antiquos erat, 'Malum sibi avem cacare.'

[71] Thrushes are said to be named from tardity; for at the confines of winter they return. The turdela, as it were a larger thrush; from whose dung bird‑lime is thought to be generated. Whence also there was a proverb among the ancients, "to shit a bad bird for oneself."

[72] Furfurio vocatus, quod prius farre in farinam redacto pasceretur.

[72] Called Furfurio, because formerly he was fed with spelt reduced into farina.

[73] Ficedulae dictae, quod ficus magis edant. Panditur versiculo veteri illo (Mart. 13,49):

[73] They are called ficedulae, because they especially eat figs. It is unfolded by that old versicle (Mart. 13,49):

Cum me ficus alat, cum pascar dulcibus uvis,
cur potius nomen non dedit uva mihi?

Since the fig nourishes me, since I am fed on sweet grapes,
why did the grape not rather give me my name?

[74] Carduelus, quod spinis et cardibus pascitur; unde etiam apud Graecos acalanthis dicta est, ab AKANTHAIS, id est spinis, quibus alitur.

[74] The carduelus (goldfinch), because it feeds on spines and thistles; whence also among the Greeks it is called acalanthis, from AKANTHAIS, that is, spines, by which it is nourished.

[75] Augures autem dicunt et in gestu et in motu et in volatu et in voce avium signa esse constituta.

[75] But the augurs say that signs have been established in the gesture, motion, flight, and voice of birds.

[76] Oscines aves vocant, quae ore cantuque auspicium faciunt; ut corvus, cornix, picus.

[76] They call oscine birds those which make an auspice by mouth and by song; such as the raven, the crow, the woodpecker.

[77] Alites, quae volatu ostendere futura videntur; quae si adversae sunt, inebrae dicuntur, quod inhibeant, id est vetent; si prosperae, praepetes; et ideo praepetes, quia omnes aves priora petunt volantes.

[77] The alites are those which seem to show the future by their flight; which, if they are adverse, are called inebrae, because they inhibit, that is, forbid; if prosperous, praepetes; and therefore praepetes, because all birds, when flying, seek what is before.

[78] Tertiam faciunt speciem auguriorum in avibus, quam communem vocant, ex utroque permixtam, id est cum aves ex ore et volatu auguriant. Sed fidem non habet.

[78] They make a third species of auguries among birds, which they call common, mixed from both—that is, when one augurs from birds both by the mouth and by the flight. But it has no credence.

[79] Omnium autem genera volucrum bis nascuntur. Primum enim ova gignuntur, inde calore materni corporis formantur et animantur.

[79] But all kinds of birds are born twice. First indeed eggs are generated; then by the heat of the maternal body they are formed and animated.

[80] Ova autem dicta ab eo quod sint uvida. Vnde et uva, eo quod intrinsecus humore sit plena. Nam humidum est quod exterius humorem habet; uvidum, quod interius.

[80] Eggs, however, are so called from the fact that they are uvid (moist). Whence also the grape, because inwardly it is full of moisture. For humid is what has moisture on the outside; uvid, what on the inside.

Quidam [autem] putant, ovum Graecam habere originem nominis. Illi autem dicunt OA, V littera ablata.

Some [however] think that ovum has a Greek origin of the name. They, however, say OA, with the letter V removed.

[81] Ova autem quaedam inani vento concipiuntur; sed non sunt generabilia, nisi quae fuerint concubitu masculino concepta et seminali spiritu penetrata. Ovorum vim tantam dicunt ut lignum perfusum eo non ardeat, ac ne vestis quidem contra aduratur. Admixta quoque calce glutinare fertur vitri fragmenta.

[81] Some eggs, moreover, are conceived by empty wind; but they are not generative, except those which have been conceived by male intercourse and penetrated by seminal spirit. They say the power of eggs is so great that wood drenched with it does not burn, and not even clothing, for its part, is singed. Also, when mixed with lime, it is said to glue fragments of glass.

VIII. DE MINVTIS VOLATILIBVS.

8. ON SMALL BIRDS.

[1] Apes dictae, vel quod se pedibus invicem alligent, vel pro eo quod sine pedibus nascuntur. Nam postea et pedes et pinnas accipiunt. Haec sollertes in generandi mellis officio adsignatas incolunt sedes, domicilia inenarrabili arte conponunt, ex variis floribus favum condunt, textisque ceris innumera prole castra replent, exercitum et reges habent, proelia movent, fumum fugiunt, tumultu exasperantur.

[1] Bees are so called, either because they bind themselves to one another with their feet, or on account of the fact that they are born without feet. For afterwards they receive both feet and wings. These skillful creatures inhabit the seats assigned to the office of generating honey, they compose domiciles with inenarrable art, they establish the honeycomb from various flowers, and with woven waxes they fill the camps with innumerable progeny; they have an army and kings, they set battles in motion, they flee smoke, they are exasperated by tumult.

[2] Has plerique experti sunt de boum cadaveribus nasci. Nam pro his creandis vitulorum occisorum carnes verberantur, ut [ex] putrefacto cruore vermes creentur, qui postea efficiuntur apes. Proprie tamen apes vocantur ortae de bobus, sicuti scabrones de equis, fuci de mulis, vespae de asinis.

[2] These many have found by experience to be born from the cadavers of oxen. For, for the creating of these, the flesh of slaughtered calves is beaten, so that [from] putrefied blood worms may be created, which afterwards become bees. Properly, however, bees are called those arisen from oxen, just as hornets from horses, drones from mules, wasps from asses.

[3] Costros Graeci appellant, qui in extremis favorum partibus maiores creantur: quos aliqui reges putant. Dicti quod castra ducant. Fugus est maior ape, scabrone minor.

[3] The Greeks call them “kostroi,” those who in the outermost parts of the honeycombs are created larger; some think them to be kings. They are so called because they lead the camps. The drone is larger than the bee, smaller than the hornet.

Dictus autem fugus quod alienos labores edat, quasi fagus; depascitur enim quod non laboravit. De quo Vergilius (Georg. 4,168):

Moreover, the drone is so called because it eats others’ labors, as if “phagus” (“eater”); for it grazes upon what it did not labor for. About which Vergil (Georgics 4,168):

Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent.

They ward off the drones, the ignoble herd, from the mangers.

[4] Vespae ä Scabrones vocati a cabo, id est [a] caballo, quod ex eis creentur. Sicut autem scabrones nascuntur de equorum carnibus putridis, ita ex his iterum saepe nascuntur scarabaei; unde et cognominati sunt.

[4] Wasps and scabrones are named from cabo, that is from caballo, because they are generated from them. And just as scabrones are born from the putrid flesh of horses, so from these again scarabs are often born; whence they have also been cognominated.

[5] Tauri vocantur scarabaei terrestres ricino similes. Buprestis animal est parvum in Italia simillimum scarabaeo, longipedum. Fallit inter herbas bovem maxime, unde et nomen habet, devoratumque tacto felle ita inflammat ut rumpat.

[5] “Tauri” are called terrestrial scarabs, similar to the tick. The buprestis is a small animal in Italy, most similar to the scarab, long‑footed. It deceives the ox among the grasses especially, whence it has its name, and, when it is devoured and its gall is touched, it so inflames him that he bursts.

[6] Cicindela scarabaeorum genus est; eo quod gradiens vel volans lucet.

[6] The cicindela is a genus of scarabs; because, walking or flying, it shines.

[7] Blattae a colore nuncupatae, siquidem et conprehensae manum tingunt; unde et blatteum colorem dicunt. Hoc autem animal lucem videre non patitur, contrarium muscae, nam musca lucipeta, et blatta lucifuga est; per noctem enim tantum ambulat.

[7] Cockroaches are named from the color, since even when seized they stain the hand; whence they also speak of the blatteous color. This animal does not endure to see light, the contrary of the fly, for the fly is lucipetal, and the cockroach is lucifugal; for it walks only by night.

[8] Papiliones aviculae sunt quae maxime abundant florentibus malvis, quique vermiculos [ex] stercore suo faciunt nasci.

[8] Butterflies are little birds which are most abundant on flowering mallows, and which cause little worms to be born from their own dung.

[9] Locusta, quod pedibus sit longis veluti asta; unde et eam Graeci tam maritimam quam terrestrem ASTAKON appellant.

[9] The locusta, because it has long feet, as it were a spear; whence also the Greeks call it ASTAKON, both the maritime and the terrestrial.

[10] Cicades ex ciculorum nascuntur sputo. Haec in Italia apud Rheginos mutae sunt, nec usquam alibi.

[10] Cicadas are born from the spittle of little cicadas. These in Italy among the Rheginians are mute, and nowhere else.

[11] Musca ex Graeco venit, sicut et mus. Haec, sicut et apes, necatae in aqua aliquotiens post unius horae spatium reviviscunt.

[11] The fly comes from the Greek, as does the mouse. Flies, like bees, when killed in water, sometimes after the span of one hour revive.

[12] Cynomya Graece vocatur, id est musca canina; nam KUON Graece canis vocatur.

[12] It is called Cynomya in Greek, that is, a canine fly; for KUON in Greek means “dog.”

[13] Culex ab aculeo dictus, quod sanguinem sugit. Habet enim in ore fistulam in modum stimuli, qua carnem terebrat ut sanguinem bibat.

[13] The gnat is so called from the aculeus (sting), because it sucks blood. For it has in its mouth a little tube in the manner of a goad, with which it bores the flesh so that it may drink blood.

[14] Sciniphes muscae minutissimae sunt, aculeis permolestae. Qua tertia plaga superbus Aegyptiorum populus caesus est.

[14] Sciniphes are very tiny flies, exceedingly troublesome with their stings. By which, as the third plague, the proud people of the Egyptians was smitten.

[15] Oestrus animal armentorum, aculeis permolestum. Oestrus autem Graecum est, qui Latine asilus, vulgo tabanus vocatur.

[15] The oestrus, a creature of the herds, very troublesome with its stings. "Oestrus" moreover is Greek, which in Latin is "asilus," commonly called "tabanus."

[16] Bibiones sunt qui in vino nascuntur, quos vulgo mustiones a musto appellant. Vnde et Afranius (407):

[16] Bibiones are those who are born in wine, whom vulgarly they call “mustions” from must. Whence also Afranius (407):

Cum ad me spectas et fabulare incipis,
ex ore in oculis tuis bibiones involant.

When you look at me and begin to talk,
from your mouth into your eyes the bibiones fly in.

[17] Gurgulio dicitur, quia pene nihil est aliud nisi guttur.

[17] It is called Gurgulio, because it is almost nothing other than a throat.