Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

In hoc vero libello quasi in quadam brevi tabella quasdam caeli causas situsque terrarum et maris spatia adnotavimus, ut in modico lector ea percurrat, et conpendiosa brevitate etymologias eorum causasque cognoscat.

In this little book indeed, as if upon a certain brief tablet, we have annotated certain causes of the sky and the site of the lands and the spaces of the sea, so that in a small compass the reader may run through them, and with compendious brevity may come to know their etymologies and their causes.

I. DE MVNDO.

1. ON THE WORLD.

[1] Mundus est caelum et terra, mare et quae in eis opera Dei. De quo dicitur (Ioh. 1,10): "Et mundus per eum factus est." Mundus Latine a philosophis dictus, quod in sempiterno motu sit, ut caelum, sol, luna, aer, maria.

[1] The world is the heaven and the earth, the sea, and the works of God which are in them. Of which it is said (John 1:10): "And the world was made through him." Mundus, in Latin, is termed by the philosophers, because it is in sempiternal motion, as are the heaven, the sun, the moon, the air, the seas.

Nulla enim requies eius elementis concessa est, ideoque semper in motu est.

For no rest has been conceded to its elements, and therefore it is always in motion.

[2] Vnde et animalia Varroni videntur elementa. "Quoniam per semetipsa," inquit, "moventur." Graeci vero nomen mundo de ornamento adcommodaverunt, propter diversitatem elementorum et pulchritudinum siderum. Appellatur enim apud eos KOSMOS, quod significat ornamentum.

[2] Whence even animals seem to Varro to be elements: “since they move by themselves,” he says. The Greeks, however, have accommodated the name for the world from ornament, on account of the diversity of the elements and the pulchritudes of the stars. For among them it is called KOSMOS, which signifies ornament.

Nihil enim mundo pulchrius oculis carnis aspicimus.

For we behold nothing more beautiful to the eyes of flesh than the world.

[3] Quattuor autem esse climata mundi, id est plagas: Orientem et Occidentem, Septentrionem et Meridiem.

[3] But that there are four climates of the world, that is, regions: the East and the West, the North and the South.

[4] Oriens ab exortu solis est nuncupatus. Occidens, quod diem faciat occidere atque interire. Abscondit enim lumen mundo et tenebras superinducit.

[4] The Orient has been denominated from the rising of the sun. The Occident, because it makes the day to set and to perish. For it conceals the light from the world and superinduces darkness.

[5] Septentrio autem a septem stellis axis vocatur, quae in ipso revolutae rotantur. Hic proprie et vertex dicitur, eo quod vertitur, sicut poeta ait (Virg. Aen. 2,250):

[5] However, the Septentrion is called from the seven stars of the axis, which, revolved upon it, are rotated. This is properly also called the vertex, because it is turned, as the poet says (Virg. Aen. 2,250):

Vertitur interea caelum.

Meanwhile the heaven is turned.

[6] Meridies, vel quia ibi sol faciat medium diem, quasi medidies, vel quia tunc purius micat aether. Merum enim purum dicitur.

[6] Midday, either because there the sun makes the middle of the day, as if “mediday,” or because then the aether gleams more purely. For merum is called “pure.”

[7] Ianuae caeli duae sunt, Oriens et Occasus; nam una porta sol procedit, alia se recipit.

[7] The gates of heaven are two, the Orient and the Occident; for by one gate the sun proceeds, by the other it withdraws.

[8] Cardines autem mundi duo, Septentrio et Meridies; in ipsis enim volvitur caelum.

[8] The cardines (hinges) of the world are two, the North and the South; for upon them the heaven is revolved.

II. DE ATOMIS.

2. ON ATOMS.

[1] Atomos philosophi vocant quasdam in mundo corporum partes tam minutissimas ut nec visui pateant nec TOMEN, id est sectionem, recipiant; unde et ATOMOI dicti sunt. Hi per inane totius mundi inrequietis motibus volitare et huc atque illuc ferri dicuntur, sicut tenuissimi pulveres qui infusi per fenestras radiis solis videntur. Ex his arbores et herbas et fruges omnes oriri, ex his ignem et aquam et universa gigni atque constare quidam philosophi gentium putaverunt.

[1] Philosophers call atoms certain parts of bodies in the world so very minute that they are neither exposed to sight nor admit TOMEN, that is, a section; whence they are called ATOMOI. These are said to flit through the void of the whole world with unquiet motions and to be borne here and there, like the most tenuous dust which, poured in through windows, is seen in the rays of the sun. From these, trees and herbs and all crops arise; from these, fire and water and all things are generated and consist, as certain philosophers of the nations have thought.

[2] Sunt autem atomi aut in corpore, aut in tempore, aut in numero. In corpore, ut lapis. Dividis eum in partes et partes ipsas dividis in grana, veluti sunt harenae; rursumque ipsa harenae grana divide in minutissimum pulverem, donec, si possis, pervenias ad aliquam minutiam, quae iam non sit quae dividi vel secari possit.

[2] Moreover, atoms are either in body, or in time, or in number. In body, as a stone: you divide it into parts, and the parts themselves you divide into grains, as is sand; and again divide the grains of the sand themselves into the most minute dust, until, if you can, you arrive at some minutia which is no longer something that can be divided or cut.

Haec est atomus in corporibus.

This is the atom in bodies.

[3] In tempore vero sic intellegitur atomus. Annum, verbi gratia, dividis in menses, menses in dies, dies in horas; adhuc partes horarum admittunt divisionem, quousque venias ad tantum temporis punctum et quandam momenti stillam, ut per nullam morulam produci possit; et ideo iam dividi non potest. Haec est atomus temporis.

[3] In time, indeed, the atom is understood thus. A year, for example, you divide into months, months into days, days into hours; further, the parts of hours admit division, until you come to such a point of time and a certain drop of a moment, such that it cannot be prolonged by any little delay; and therefore it now cannot be divided. This is the atom of time.

[4] In numeris, ut puta octo dividuntur in quattuor, rursus quattuor in duo, deinde duo in unum. Vnus autem atomus est, quia insecabilis est. Sic et littera: nam orationem dividis in verba, verba in syllabas, syllabam in litteras.

[4] In numbers, as, for instance, eight are divided into four, again four into two, then two into one. One, however, is an atom, because it is insecable. So too the letter: for you divide an oration into words, words into syllables, a syllable into letters.

Littera, pars minima, atomus est, nec dividi potest. Atomus ergo est quod dividi non potest, ut in geometria punctus. Nam TOMOS divisio dicitur Graece, ATOMOS indivisio.

The letter, the least part, is an atom, nor can it be divided. An atom, therefore, is that which cannot be divided, as in geometry a point. For in Greek TOMOS is called “division,” ATOMOS “indivision.”

III. DE ELEMENTIS.

3. ON THE ELEMENTS.

[1] ULEN Graeci rerum quandam primam materiam dicunt, nullo prorsus modo formatam, sed omnium corporalium formarum capacem, ex qua visibilia haec elementa formata sunt; unde et ex eius derivatione vocabulum acceperunt. Hanc ULEN Latini materiam appellaverunt, ideo quia omne informe, unde aliquid faciendum est, semper materia nuncupatur. Proinde et eam poetae silvam nominaverunt, nec incongrue, quia materiae silvarum sunt.

[1] The Greeks call ULEN a certain first matter of things, in no way formed at all, but capable of all corporeal forms, from which these visible elements have been formed; whence also from its derivation they received the term. This ULEN the Latins have called materia, for this reason, because everything formless, from which something is to be made, is always called materia. Accordingly the poets have named it “silva” (wood/forest), and not incongruously, because materials come from woods.

[2] Graeci autem elementa STOICHEIA nuncupant, eo quod sibi societatis concordia et communione quadam conveniant. Nam sic ea inter se naturali quadam ratione iuncta dicuntur, [ut] modo originem ab igni repetentes usque ad terram, modo a terra usque ad ignem, ut ignis quidem in aera desinat, aer in aquam densetur, aqua in terram crassescat; rursusque terra diluatur in aquam, aqua rarescat in aera, aer in ignem extenuetur.

[2] The Greeks, however, call the elements STOICHEIA, because they come together with one another in the concord of association and in a certain communion. For thus they are said to be joined among themselves by a certain natural rationale: now retracing their origin from fire down to earth, now from earth up to fire—so that fire, indeed, ends in air, air is condensed into water, water thickens into earth; and in turn earth is dissolved into water, water is rarefied into air, air is attenuated into fire.

[3] Quapropter omnia elementa omnibus inesse, sed unumquodque eorum ex eo quod amplius habet accepisse vocabulum. Sunt autem divina providentia propriis animantibus distributa: nam caelum angelis, aerem volucribus, mare piscibus, terram hominibus ceterisque animantibus Creator ipse inplevit.

[3] Wherefore all the elements are present in all things, but each of them has received its appellation from that of which it has more. Moreover, by divine providence they have been distributed to their proper living beings: for heaven with angels, the air with birds, the sea with fishes, the earth with humans and the other living creatures, the Creator himself has filled.

IV. DE CAELO.

4. ON HEAVEN.

[1] Caelum vocatum eo quod, tamquam caelatum vas, inpressa lumina habeat stellarum veluti signa. Nam caelatum dicitur vas quod signis eminentioribus refulget. Distinxit enim eum Deus claris luminibus, et inplevit; sole scilicet et lunae orbe fulgenti et astrorum micantium splendentibus signis adornavit.

[1] It is called heaven because, just as a caelated (engraved) vessel, it has impressed lights as if signs of the stars. For a vessel is called caelated which refulges with more eminent signs. For God distinguished it with bright lights and filled it; namely with the sun and the shining orb of the moon, and he adorned it with the gleaming signs of the twinkling stars.

[Alias autem a superiora caelando.]

[Otherwise, however, from caelating the things above.]

[2] Hic autem Graece OURANOS dicitur APO TOU ORASTHAI, id est a videndo, eo quod aer perspicuus sit et ad speculandum purior. Caelum autem in Scripturis sanctis ideo firmamentum vocatur, quod sit cursu siderum et ratis legibus fixisque firmatum.

[2] Here, however, in Greek it is called OURANOS from APO TOU ORASTHAI, that is, from seeing, because the air is perspicuous and purer for observing. But in the Holy Scriptures heaven is therefore called the firmament, because it has been made firm by the course of the stars and by ratified and fixed laws.

[3] Interdum et caelum pro aere accipitur, ubi venti et nubes et procellae et turbines fiunt. Lucretius (4,133):

[3] At times also heaven is taken for air, where winds and clouds and squalls and whirlwinds come to be. Lucretius (4,133):

Caelum, quod dicitur aer.

Heaven, which is called air.

Et Psalmus (79,2; 104,12): "Volucres caeli" appellat, cum manifestum sit aves in aere volare; et nos in consuetudine hunc aerem caelum appellamus. Nam cum de sereno vel nubilo quaerimus, aliquando dicimus, "qualis est aer?", aliquando, "quale est caelum?"

And the Psalm (79:2; 104:12) calls them "birds of heaven," although it is manifest that birds fly in the air; and we, in customary usage, call this air "sky." For when we ask about fair or cloudy weather, sometimes we say, "what is the air like?", sometimes, "what is the sky like?"

V. DE PARTIBVS CAELI.

5. ON THE PARTS OF THE SKY.

[1] Aether locus est in quo sidera sunt, et significat eum ignem qui a toto mundo in altum separatus est. Sane aether est ipsud elementum, aethra vero splendor aetheris, et est sermo Graecus.

[1] Aether is the place in which the stars are, and it signifies that fire which has been separated on high from the whole world. Indeed, aether is the element itself; aethra, however, is the splendor of the aether, and it is a Greek word.

[2] Sphaera caeli dicta eo quod species eius in rotundum formata est. Sed et quidquid tale est, a volubilitate sphaera a Graecis dicitur, sicut [et] pilae quibus ludunt infantes. Nam philosophi dicunt caelum in sphaerae figuram undique esse convexum, omnibus partibus aequalem, concludentem terram in media mundi mole libratam.

[2] The sphere of heaven is so called because its appearance is formed into the round. But also whatever is such, from its rollability is called “sphaera” by the Greeks, just as [and] the balls with which infants play. For the philosophers say that heaven is convex on all sides in the figure of a sphere, equal in all parts, enclosing the earth poised in the middle mass of the world.

Hunc moveri dicunt, et cum motu eius sidera in eo fixa ab oriente usque ad occidentem circumire, septentrionibus breviores gyros iuxta cardinem peragentibus.

They say that this is moved, and that with its motion the stars fixed in it go around from the east all the way to the west, the northern ones accomplishing shorter gyres near the pole.

[3] Axis est Septentrionis linea recta, quae per mediam pilam sphaerae tendit; et dicta axis quod in ea sphaera ut rota volvitur, vel quia ibi plaustrum est.

[3] Axis is the straight line of the Septentrion, which stretches through the middle of the ball of the sphere; and it is called axis because on it the sphere is rolled like a wheel, or because the plaustrum (the Wain) is there.

[4] Cardines extremae partes sunt axis; et dictae cardines eo quod per eos vertitur caelum.

[4] The cardines are the extreme parts of the axis; and they are called cardines because through them the heaven is turned.

[5] Poli sunt circuli qui currunt per axem. Horum alter est Septentrionalis, qui numquam occidit, appellaturque Boreus; alter Australis, qui numquam videtur, et Austronotius dicitur. Et dicti poli quod sint axium cycli, ex usu plaustrorum, a poliendo scilicet nominati.

[5] The poles are the circles that run along the axis. Of these, the one is Northern, which never sets, and is called Boreal; the other is Southern, which is never seen, and is called Austronotian. And they are called poles because they are the cycles of the axes, from the use of wagons, namely named from polishing.

Sed polus Boreus semper videtur, Austronotius numquam; quia dextra caeli altiora sunt, pressa austri.

But the Boreal pole is always seen, the Austronotian never; because the right parts of the sky are higher, the southern are pressed down.

[6] Convexa extrema caeli sunt, a curvitate dicta. Nam convexum curvum est et inclinatum, et in modum circuli flexum.

[6] The convexities are the outermost parts of the sky, so called from curvature. For the convex is curved and inclined, and flexed in the manner of a circle.

[7] Lacteus circulus via est quae in sphaera videtur, a candore dicta, quia alba est. Quam aliqui dicunt viam esse qua circuit sol, et ex splendoris ipsius transitu ita lucere.

[7] The Milky circle is a way which is seen in the sphere, named from candor because it is white. Some say it is the road by which the sun circles, and that from the transit of its own splendor it thus shines.

VI. DE CIRCVLIS CAELI.

6. ON THE CIRCLES OF THE SKY.

[1] Habitatio ista caeli circulorum distincta zonis quasdam partes temperie sua incolere permisit, quasdam negavit enormitate frigoris aut caloris. Zonae autem ipsae quinque sunt, quae ideo zonae vel circuli appellantur eo quod in circumductione sphaerae existunt.

[1] This habitation of the heaven, its circles distinguished into zones, has permitted certain parts to be inhabited by their own temperateness, and has denied certain others because of the enormity of cold or of heat. The zones themselves, moreover, are five, which therefore are called zones or circles for the reason that they exist in the circumduction of the sphere.

[2] Quorum primus circulus ideo ARKTIKOS appellatur eo quod intra eum Arctorum signa inclusa prospiciuntur, quae a nostris in ursarum speciem ficta Septentriones appellantur.

[2] Of which the first circle is therefore called ARKTIKOS, because within it the signs of the Bears are seen enclosed, which by our people, fashioned in the likeness of bears, are called the Septentriones.

[3] Secundus circulus ex eo THERINOS TROPIKOS dicitur quia in eo circulo sol Aquilonis finibus aestatem faciens ultra eum circulum non transit, sed statim revertitur; et inde TROPIKOS appellatur.

[3] The second circle is for this reason called THERINOS TROPIKOS, because in that circle the sun, making summer at the boundaries of Aquilo (the North), does not pass beyond that circle, but immediately turns back; and thence it is called TROPIKOS.

[4] Tertius circulus EMERINOS, qui a Latinis ideo aequinoctialis appellatur eo quod sol, cum ad eum orbem pervenerit, aequinoctium facit. EMERINOS enim Latine dies dicitur atque nox, quo circulo dimidia sphaerae pars constituta respicitur.

[4] The third circle, EMERINOS, which by the Latins is therefore called the equinoctial, because the sun, when it has come to that orb, makes the equinox. For EMERINOS in Latin is called “day and night,” in which circle the half part of the sphere, being set, is seen.

[5] Quartus circulus ANTARKTIKOS vocatur eo quod contrarius sit circulo quem ARKTIKON nominamus.

[5] The fourth circle is called ANTARKTIKOS because it is contrary to the circle which we name ARKTIKON.

[6] Quintus circulus CHEIMERINOS TROPIKOS, qui a Latinis hiemalis sive brumalis appellatur, ideo quia sol cum ad eum circulum pervenerit, hiemem his, qui ad Aquilonem sunt, facit, aestatem autem his, qui Austri partibus commorantur.

[6] The fifth circle is the CHEIMERINOS TROPIKOS, which by the Latins is called the hiemal or brumal, for this reason: because when the sun has come to that circle, it makes winter for those who are toward Aquilon (the North), but summer for those who dwell in the parts of the South.

[7] Zodiacus [autem] circulus est É

[7] The Zodiac [however] is a circle É

VII. DE AERE ET NVBE.

7. ON AIR AND CLOUD.

[1] Aer est inanitas plurimum habens admixtum raritatis quam cetera elementa. De quo Vergilius (Aen.12,354):

[1] Air is an inanity having the most admixture of rarity, more than the other elements. About which Virgil (Aen.12,354):

Longum per inane secutus.

Having pursued far through the void.

Aer dictus APO TOU AIREIN, ab eo quod ferat terram, vel ab eo quod feratur. Hic autem partim ad terrenam, partim ad caelestem materiam pertinet; nam ille subtilis, ubi ventosi ac procellosi motus non possunt existere, ad caelestem pertinet partem; iste vero turbulentior, qui exhalationibus humidis corporescit, terrae deputatur; quique ex se multas species reddit. Nam commotus ventos facit; vehementius concitatus ignes et tonitrua; contractus nubila; conspissatus pluviam; congelantibus nubilis nivem; turbulentius congelantibus densioribus nubilis grandinem; distentus serenum efficit.

Air is called APO TOU AIREIN, from the fact that it bears (lifts) the earth, or from the fact that it is borne. This, moreover, pertains partly to terrestrial, partly to celestial matter; for that subtler part, where windy and stormy motions cannot exist, pertains to the celestial part; but the more turbulent part, which by moist exhalations becomes corporeal, is assigned to the earth; and it renders many species from itself. For, set in motion, it makes winds; more vehemently stirred, fires and thunder; contracted, clouds; thickened, rain; with the clouds freezing, snow; with the clouds freezing more turbulently and more densely, hail; distended, it brings about serene (clear) weather.

Nam aerem densum nubem esse, nubem rarefactam et solutam aerem.

For dense air is a cloud, and a cloud, rarefied and dissolved, is air.

[2] Nubes dictae ab obnubendo, id est operiendo, caelum; unde et nuptae, quod vultus suos velent; unde et Neptunus, quod nubat, id est mare et terram tegat. Nubes autem aeris densitas facit. Venti enim aerem conglobant nubemque faciunt; unde est illud (Virg.

[2] Clouds are so called from obnubing, that is, covering, the sky; whence also brides, because they veil their faces; whence also Neptune, because he “weds”—that is, covers the sea and the land. But a cloud is made by the density of the air. For winds conglobate the air and make a cloud; whence is that (Verg.

Aen. 5,20):

Aeneid 5,20):

Atque in nubem cogitur aer.

And the air is gathered into a cloud.

VIII. DE TONITRVO.

8. ON THUNDER.

[1] Tonitruum dictum quod sonus eius terreat; nam tonus sonus. Qui ideo interdum tam graviter concutit omnia ita ut caelum discississe videatur quia, cum procella vehementissimi venti nubibus se repente inmiserit, turbine invalescente exitumque quaerente, nubem, quam excavavit, impetu magno perscindit, ac sic cum horrendo fragore defertur ad aures.

[1] Thunder is so called because its sound terrifies; for tone is sound. Which for this reason sometimes so heavily shakes all things that the sky seems to have been rent, because, when a squall of a most vehement wind has suddenly hurled itself into the clouds, with the whirlwind growing strong and seeking an exit, it splits with great force the cloud which it has excavated, and thus with a horrendous crash it is borne to the ears.

[2] Quod mirari quis non debeat, cum vesicula quamvis parva magnum tamen sonitum displosa emittit. Cum tonitruo autem simul et fulgura exprimi: sed illud celerius videtur, quia clarum est; hoc autem ad aures tardius pervenire. Lux autem quae apparet ante tonitruum fulgetra vocatur.

[2] Which one ought not to marvel at, since even a vesicle, however small, when exploded, emits a great sound. And together with thunder lightnings as well are produced; but the former seems swifter, because it is bright; the latter reaches the ears more slowly. The light, moreover, which appears before thunder is called fulgetra.

Quae, ut diximus, ideo ante videtur quia clarum est lumen; tonitruum autem ad aures tardius pervenit.

Which, as we have said, for that reason is seen before because the light is bright; but the thunder reaches the ears more slowly.

IX. DE FVLMINIBVS.

9. ON THUNDERBOLTS.

[1] Fulgur et fulmen, ictus caelestis iaculi, a feriendo dicti; fulgere enim ferire est atque percutere. Fulmen autem conlisa nubila faciunt. Nam omnium rerum conlisio ignem creat, ut in lapidibus cernimus, vel attritu rotarum, vel in silvis arborum: simili modo in nubibus ignis, unde et prius nubila sunt, deinde ignes.

[1] The lightning-flash and the thunderbolt, the stroke of a celestial javelin, are said to be so called from smiting; for to fulgere is to smite and to strike. But the thunderbolt is made by clouds that have been collided. For the collision of all things creates fire, as we discern in stones, or by the attrition of wheels, or in woods among trees: in a similar way in the clouds there is fire, whence also first there are clouds, then fires.

[2] Vento autem et igni fulmina in nubibus fieri et inpulsu ventorum emitti. Ideo autem fulminis ignem vim habere maiorem ad penetrandum, quia subtilioribus elementis factus est quam noster, id est qui nobis in usu est. Tria sunt autem eius nomina, fulgus, fulgor et fulmen: fulgus, quia tangit; fulgor, quia incendit et urit; fulmen, quia findit; ideo et cum ternis radiis finguntur.

[2] But thunderbolts are made in the clouds by wind and fire and are sent forth by the impulse of the winds. And the reason why the fire of the thunderbolt has a greater force for penetrating is that it has been made from more subtle elements than ours, that is, than the fire which is in use among us. There are, moreover, three names for it, fulgus, fulgor, and fulmen: fulgus, because it touches; fulgor, because it sets on fire and burns; fulmen, because it splits; therefore they also are fashioned with triple rays.

X. DE ARCV ET NVBIVM EFFECTIBVS.

10. ON THE RAINBOW AND THE EFFECTS OF CLOUDS.

[1] Arcus caelestis dictus a similitudine curvati arcus. Iris huic nomen proprium est. Et dicitur iris quasi aeris, id est quod per aera ad terras descendat.

[1] The heavenly bow is called so from the likeness of a curved bow. Iris is its proper name. And it is called “iris” as if “aeris,” that is, because through the air it descends to the lands.

Hic autem a sole resplendet, dum cavae nubes ex adverso radium solis accipiunt et arcus speciem fingunt; cui varios colores illa dat res, quia aqua tenuis, aer lucidus, et nubes caligantes, inradiata ista varios creant colores.

This, however, is resplendent from the sun, while hollow clouds on the opposite side receive the sun’s ray and fashion the appearance of an arc; to which that thing gives various colors, because thin water, lucid air, and clouds growing dark—these, when irradiated, create various colors.

[2] Pluviae dictae quod fluant, quasi fluviae; nascuntur enim de terrae et maris anhelitu. Quae cum altius elevatae fuerint, aut solis calore resolutae, aut vi ventorum conpressae, stillantur in terris.

[2] Rains are so called because they flow, as though they were fluviae; for they are born from the exhalation of earth and sea. Which, when they have been elevated higher, either resolved by the heat of the sun or compressed by the force of the winds, are distilled upon the lands.

[3] Nimbus est densitas nubis intempesta et obscura; et inde nimbus a nube. Sunt autem nimbi repentinae et praecipites pluviae. Nam pluvias vocamus lentas et iuges, quasi fluvias, quasi fluentes.

[3] A nimbus is the density of a cloud, unseasonable and dark; and from there nimbus from nubes. But nimbi are sudden and headlong rains. For we call rains slow and continual, as if fluvial, as if flowing.

[4] Imbres autem et ad nubes et ad pluvias pertinent, dictae a Graeco vocabulo quod terram inebrient ad germinandum. Ex his enim cuncta creantur, unde et Lucretius (1,715):

[4] Showers, moreover, pertain both to clouds and to rains, called from a Greek vocable because they inebriate the earth for germination. For from these all things are created, whence also Lucretius (1,715):

Ex igni, terra atque anima nascuntur et imbri.

From fire, earth, and spirit they are born, and from rain.

Est autem nomen Graecum.

However, the name is Greek.

[5] Grando appellata quod forma eius granorum similitudinem habeat. Haec autem ventorum rigore durantur in nube, ac solidantur in nivem, ruptoque aere solvuntur.

[5] Hail is appellated because its form has the similitude of grains. These, moreover, are hardened by the rigor of the winds in the cloud, and are solidified into snow, and with the air broken they are released.

[6] Nix a nube, unde venit; et glacies a gelu et aqua, quasi gelaquies, id est gelata aqua.

[6] Snow from the cloud, whence it comes; and ice from gelu (frost) and water, as if “gelaquies,” that is, “congealed water.”

[7] Gelus autem quod eo stringatur tellus; GE quippe terra dicitur. Tunc autem maiori gelu stringitur terra, cum fuerit nox serena.

[7] Frost, moreover, because by it the earth is constricted; for GE is said to mean earth. Then, moreover, the earth is bound with greater frost, when the night has been clear.

[8] Pruina est matutini temporis frigus, quae inde pruina nomen accepit quia sicut ignis urit; PUR enim ignis. Vrere enim et ad frigus et ad solem pertinet; nam uno sermone duo diversa significantur, pro eo quod unum effectum habent. Similis enim vis est et caloris et frigoris, unde et utraque saxa rumpunt.

[8] Hoarfrost is the cold of the morning time, which from that took the name hoarfrost because, like fire, it burns; for PUR is “fire.” For to burn pertains both to cold and to the sun; for by one word two diverse things are signified, on the ground that they have one effect. For the force is similar both of heat and of cold, whence both break rocks.

Nam calor urit, ut est (Virg. Aen. 4,68):

For heat burns, as it is (Virg. Aen. 4,68):

Vritur infelix Dido.

Unhappy Dido is burned.

Item frigus urit, ut est (Virg. Georg. 1,93):

Likewise cold burns, as it is (Virgil, Georgics 1, 93):

Aut boreae penetrabile frigus adurat.

Or let the penetrating cold of Boreas sear.

[9] Ros Graecum est, quod illi DROSOS dicunt. Alii putant ros dictum quia rarus est, et non spissus ut pluvia.

[9] Dew is Greek, which they call DROSOS. Others think it is called dew because it is rare, and not thick, like rain.

[10] Nebula inde dicta, unde et nubila, ab obnubendo scilicet, hoc est operiendo, terram, sive quod nubes volans faciat. Exhalant enim valles humidae nebulas et fiunt nubes; inde nubilum, inde nives. Nebulae autem ima petunt cum serenitas est; summa, cum nubilum.

[10] Mist (nebula) is thence named, as also cloudiness (nubilum), from obnubing, that is, from covering the earth; or because a cloud in flight makes it. For humid valleys exhale mists and clouds are made; hence cloudiness, hence snows. Moreover, mists seek the lowest places when there is serenity; the highest, when there is cloudiness.

[11] Caligo umbra est de spissitudine aeris effecta. Et dicta caligo quod maxime aeris calore gignatur.

[11] Caligo is a shadow effected from the spissitude of the air. And it is called caligo because it is most of all generated by the heat of the air.

[12] Tenebrae dicuntur quod teneant umbras. Nihil autem sunt tenebrae, sed ipsa lucis absentia tenebrae dicuntur; sicut silentium non aliqua res est, sed ubi sonus non est, silentium dicitur; sic tenebrae non aliquid sunt, sed ubi lux non est, tenebrae dicuntur.

[12] Darkness is said so because it holds shadows. But darkness is nothing, rather the very absence of light is called darkness; just as silence is not some thing, but where sound is not, it is called silence; so darkness is not some thing, but where light is not, it is called darkness.

[13] Vmbra est aer carens solem. Dicta autem quod fiat cum solis obicimur radiis. Est autem mobilis et incerta, et ex solis circuitu et ex motu ventorum.

[13] Shadow is air lacking the sun. It is so called because it is made when we are interposed to the sun’s rays. Moreover it is mobile and uncertain, both from the circuit of the sun and from the motion of the winds.

Namque quotiens movetur in sole, nobiscum movere videtur; quia ubi quoque loco a radiis solis obstitimus, perinde lumen illi auferimus. Sic et ingredi nobiscum umbra et gestus nostros videtur imitari.

For indeed, as often as it is moved in the sun, it seems to move with us; because wherever, in whatever place, we have stood in the way of the sun’s rays, in like manner we take light away from it. Thus too the shadow seems to go along with us and to imitate our gestures.

[14] Lux, ipsa substantia; lumen, quod a luce manat, id est candor lucis: sed hoc confundunt auctores.

[14] Light is the substance itself; lumen is that which flows from light, that is, the candor of light: but authors confound this.

XI. DE VENTIS.

11. ON THE WINDS.

[1] Ventus [est] aer commotus et agitatus, et pro diversis partibus caeli nomina diversa sortitus. Dictus autem ventus quod sit vehemens et violentus. Vis enim eius tanta est ut non solum saxa et arbores evellat, sed etiam caelum terramque conturbet, maria commoveat.

[1] Wind is air set in motion and agitated, and, according to the diverse parts of the sky, has been allotted diverse names. Moreover, it is called “wind” because it is vehement and violent. For its force is so great that it not only uproots rocks and trees, but also perturbs heaven and earth, and puts the seas into commotion.

[2] Ventorum quattuor principales spiritus sunt. Quorum primus ab oriente Subsolanus, a meridie Auster, ab occidente Favonius, a septentrione eiusdem nominis ventus adspirat; habentes geminos hinc inde ventorum spiritus.

[2] There are four principal spirits of the winds. Of which the first from the east is Subsolanus, from the south Auster, from the west Favonius, from the north a wind of the same name breathes; having twin, on either side, spirits of the winds.

[3] Subsolanus a latere dextro Vulturnum habet, a laevo Eurum: Auster a dextris Euroaustrum, a sinistris Austroafricum: Favonius a parte dextra Africum, a laeva Corum: porro Septentrio a dextris Circium, a sinistris Aquilonem. Hi duodecim venti mundi globum flatibus circumagunt.

[3] Subsolanus on the right side has Vulturnus, on the left Eurus: Auster on the right Euroauster, on the left Austroafricus: Favonius on the right side Africus, on the left Corus: furthermore, Septentrio on the right Circius, on the left Aquilo. These twelve winds wheel the globe of the world with their blasts.

[4] Quorum nomina propriis causis signata sunt: nam Subsolanus vocatus eo quod sub ortu solis nascatur; Eurus eo quod ab EO fluat, id est ab oriente; est enim coniunctus Subsolano; Vulturnus, quod alte tonat.

[4] Whose names are marked by their proper causes: for Subsolanus is so called because it is born under the rising of the sun; Eurus, because it flows from EO, that is, from the east—for it is joined to Subsolanus; Vulturnus, because it thunders on high.

[5] De quo Lucretius (5,745):

[5] Concerning which Lucretius (5,745):

Altitonans Vulturnus et Auster fulmine pollens;

High-thundering Vulturnus and Auster, powerful in lightning;

[6] Auster ab auriendo aquas vocatus, unde et crassum aerem facit et nubila nutrit. Hic Graece NOTOS appellatur, propter quod interdum corrumpat aerem. Nam pestilentiam, quae ex corrupto aere nascitur, Auster flans in reliquas regiones transmittit; sed sicut Auster pestilentiam gignit, sic Aquilo repellit.

[6] Auster, called from drawing up waters, whence he also makes the air thick and nourishes clouds. In Greek he is called NOTOS, on account of which he sometimes corrupts the air. For the pestilence which is born from corrupted air, Auster, blowing, transmits into the other regions; but just as Auster engenders pestilence, so Aquilo repels it.

Euroauster dictus quod ex una parte habeat Eurum, ex altera Austrum.

Called Euroauster because on one side it has Eurus, on the other Auster.

[7] Austroafricus, quod iunctus sit hinc et inde Austro et Africo. Ipse et Libonotus, quod sit ei Libs hinc et inde Notus.

[7] Austroafricus, because it is joined on this side and that by Auster and Africus. It is also the Libonotus, because for it Libs is on this side and Notus on the other.

[8] [Favonius nuncupatus eo quod foveat fruges ac flores. Hic Graece Zephyrus, quia plerumque vere flat; unde est illud (Virg. Georg. 1,44):

[8] [Favonius is named thus because he fosters crops and flowers. This, in Greek, is Zephyrus, because for the most part he blows in spring; whence is that (Virg. Georg. 1,44):

Et Zephyro putris se gleba resolvit.]

And at the Zephyr the crumbling glebe loosens itself.]

Zephyrus Graeco nomine appellatus eo quod flores et germina eius flatu vivificentur. Hic Latine Favonius dicitur propter quod foveat quae nascuntur. Austro autem flores solvuntur, a Zephyro fiunt.

Zephyrus, called by a Greek name because flowers and shoots are vivified by his breath. This in Latin is called Favonius, on account of the fact that he fosters what are born. By the South Wind, however, flowers are dissolved; by the Zephyr they are made.

[9] Africus a propria regione vocatus; in Africa enim initium flandi sumit.

[9] The Africus is called from its proper region; for indeed in Africa it takes the inception of blowing.

[10] Corus est qui ab occidente aestivo flat. Et vocatus Corus quod ipse ventorum circulum claudat, et quasi chorum faciat. Hic antea Caurus dictus, quem plerique Argesten dicunt, non ut inprudens vulgus Agrestem.

[10] Corus is the wind that blows from the summer west. And it is called Corus because it itself closes the circle of the winds, and, as it were, makes a chorus. This was formerly called Caurus, which most call Argestes, not, as the imprudent vulgar, Agrestes.

[11] Septentrio dictus eo quod circulo septem stellarum consurgit, quae vertente se mundo resupinato capite ferri videntur.

[11] The Septentrion is so called because it rises with the circle of seven stars, which, as the world turns itself, seem to be borne with the head thrown back.

[12] Circius dictus eo quod Coro sit iunctus. Hunc Hispani Gallicum vocant, propter quod eis a parte Galliciae flat. Aquilo dictus eo quod aquas stringat et nubes dissipet;

[12] The Circius is so called because it is joined to Corus. The Spaniards call this one the Gallic, because it blows for them from the Gallic side. Aquilo is so called because it constricts the waters and dissipates the clouds;

[13] est enim gelidus ventus et siccus. Idem et Boreas, quia ab Hyperboreis montibus flat; inde enim origo eiusdem venti est; unde et frigidus est. Natura enim omnium septentrionalium ventorum frigida et sicca est, australium humida et calida.

[13] for it is a gelid wind and dry. Likewise Boreas, because it blows from the Hyperborean mountains; for from there is the origin of the same wind; whence also it is frigid. For the nature of all septentrional (northern) winds is frigid and dry, of the austral (southern) [winds] humid and hot.

[14] Ex omnibus autem ventis duo cardinales sunt: Septentrio et Auster.

[14] Of all the winds, however, two are cardinal: Septentrion and Auster.

[15] Etesiae autem flabra Aquilonis sunt, quibus nomen inditum est quod certo anni tempore flatus agere incipiunt; ENIAUTOS enim Graece, annus Latine dicitur. Haec autem cursum rectum a Borea in Aegyptum ferunt, quibus Auster contrarius est.

[15] The Etesian winds are the breezes of Aquilo, to which the name has been given because at a fixed time of the year they begin to set their blowing in motion; for ENIAUTOS in Greek is called annus in Latin. These carry a straight course from Boreas into Egypt, to which Auster is contrary.

[16] Duo sunt autem extra hos ubique spiritus magis quam venti: aura et altanus.

[16] There are moreover, besides these, everywhere breathings rather than winds: aura and altanus.

[17] Aura ab aere dicta, quasi aeria, quod lenis sit motus aeris. Agitatus enim aer auram facit; unde et Lucretius (5,503):

[17] The aura is so called from air, as if aerial, because it is a gentle motion of the air. For stirred air makes an aura; whence also Lucretius (5,503):

Aerias auras.

Aerial breezes.

[18] Altanus, qui in pelago est, per derivationem ab alto, id est mari, vocatus. Nam alter est flatus in ripis quem diximus auram; nam aura terrae est.

[18] The Altanus, which is on the open sea, is named by derivation from the altum, that is, the sea. For there is another blowing on the shores which we have called the aura; for the aura is of the land.

[19] Turbo est volubilitas ventorum; et turbo dictus a terra, quotiens ventus consurgit et terram in circuitum mittit.

[19] A turbo is the whirling of the winds; and turbo is said from terra (earth), whenever the wind rises up and sends the earth into a circuit.

[20] Tempestas aut pro tempore dicitur, sicut ubique historiographi solent, dum dicunt, "ea tempestate"; aut ab statu caeli, quia magnitudine sui multis diebus oritur. Verno autem et autumnali tempore quam maximae fiunt tempestates, quando nec plena est aestas, nec plena hiems; unde et medium et confine utriusque temporis ex coniunctione aerum contrariorum efficiuntur tempestates.

[20] Tempest is said either with respect to time, as historiographers everywhere are accustomed, when they say, "at that time"; or from the state of the sky, because by its own magnitude it arises for many days. But in the vernal and autumnal time the very greatest tempests occur, when neither summer is full nor winter full; whence both at the middle and at the boundary of each of the two seasons, from the conjunction of contrary airs, tempests are brought about.

[21] Fragor a fractarum rerum nominatus est sonitu, quia sicca quaeque et arida facile frangit.

[21] Crash is named from the sound of fractured things, because whatever is dry and arid it easily breaks.

[22] Procella ab eo quod percellat, id est percutiat et evellat; est enim vis venti cum pluvia. Procellae enim aut de fulminibus, aut de ventis fiunt. Nihil autem velocius ventis; unde et propter celeritatem tam ventos quam fulmina alata fingunt poetae, ut (Virg.

[22] A squall (procella) is from that by which it strikes-through (per-cells), that is, strikes and tears out; for it is a force of wind with rain. For squalls are made either from thunderbolts or from winds. Nothing, however, is swifter than winds; whence also, on account of their celerity, the poets feign both the winds and the thunderbolts to be winged, as (Virg.

Aen. 8,430):

Aeneid 8,430):

Alitis Austri.

Of the Winged Auster.

XII. DE AQVIS.

12. ON THE WATERS.

[1] Aqua dicta quod superficies eius aequalis sit; hinc et aequor appellatum, quia aequaliter sursum est.

[1] Water is so called because its surface is equal; hence also the level expanse (aequor) is appellated, because it is equally elevated.

[2] Duo autem validissima vitae humanae elementa ignis et aqua; unde graviter damnantur quibus ignis et aqua interdicitur.

[2] Two, moreover, most potent elements of human life are fire and water; hence those are gravely condemned to whom fire and water are interdicted.

[3] Aquarum elementum ceteris omnibus imperat. Aquae enim caelum temperant, terram fecundant, aerem exhalationibus suis incorporant, scandunt in sublime et caelum sibi vindicant. Quid enim mirabilius aquis in caelo stantibus?

[3] The element of waters commands all the others. For waters temper heaven, fecundate the earth, incorporate the air with their exhalations, climb on high and claim heaven for themselves. For what is more marvelous than waters standing in heaven?

[4] Parum sit in tantam pervenisse altitudinem; rapiunt et secum piscium examina; effusae omnium in terra nascentium causa fiunt. Fruges gignunt, arbores, frutices herbasque produnt, sordes detergunt, peccata abluunt, potum cunctis animantibus tribuunt.

[4] Let it be too little to have reached such an altitude; they even snatch up with them schools of fish; once effused, they become the cause of all things being born on the earth. They engender crops, bring forth trees, shrubs, and herbs, wipe away filth, wash away sins, grant drink to all living creatures.

XIII. DE DIVERSITATE AQVARVM.

13. ON THE DIVERSITY OF WATERS.

[1] Aquarum naturae diversitas multa est: aliae enim salis, aliae nitri, aliae aluminis, aliae sulphuris, aliae bituminis, aliae curam morborum adhibentes.

[1] The diversity of the natures of waters is manifold: for some are of salt, others of nitre, others of alum, others of sulphur, others of bitumen, others effecting the cure of diseases.

[2] Nam iuxta Romam Albulae aquae vulneribus medentur. In Italia fons Ciceronis oculorum vulnera curat. In Aethiopia lacus est quo perfusa corpora velut oleo nitescunt.

[2] For near Rome the Albula waters heal wounds. In Italy the spring of Cicero cures wounds of the eyes. In Ethiopia there is a lake, upon being drenched in which bodies glisten as if with oil.

Zamae fons in Africa canoras voces facit. Ex Clitorio lacu Italiae qui biberint vini taedium habent.

The spring of Zama in Africa makes voices canorous. From the Clitorian lake of Italy, those who have drunk have a loathing for wine.

[3] In Chio insula fontem esse quo hebetes fiant. In Boeotia duo fontes; alter memoriam, alter oblivionem adfert.

[3] On the island of Chios there is a spring by which people become dull. In Boeotia there are two springs; the one brings memory, the other oblivion.

[4] Cyzici fons amorem Veneris tollit. Boeotiae lacus furialis est, de quo qui biberit ardore libidinis exardescit. In Campania sunt aquae quae sterilitatem feminarum et virorum insaniam abolere dicuntur.

[4] The spring at Cyzicus takes away the love of Venus. The lake of Boeotia is furial; from it whoever drinks blazes up with the ardor of libido. In Campania there are waters which are said to abolish the sterility of women and the insanity of men.

In Aethiopiae fonte Rubro qui biberit lymphaticus fit.

In the Red spring of Ethiopia, whoever drinks becomes lymphatic (i.e., frenzied).

[5] Leinus fons Arcadiae abortus fieri non patitur. In Sicilia fontes sunt duo, quorum unus sterilem fecundat, alter fecundam sterilem facit. In Thessalia duo sunt flumina: ex uno bibentes oves nigras fieri, ex altero albas, ex utroque varias.

[5] The Leinus spring of Arcadia does not allow miscarriages to happen. In Sicily there are two springs, of which one makes the sterile fecund, the other makes the fecund sterile. In Thessaly there are two rivers: from one, sheep drinking become black, from the other, white, from both, variegated.

[6] Clitumnus lacus in Vmbria maximos boves gignit. Reatinis paludis aquis iumentorum ungulas indurari. In Asphaltite lacu Iudacae nihil mergi potest, quidquid animam habet.

[6] The lake Clitumnus in Umbria begets the largest oxen. By the waters of the Reatine marsh the hooves of beasts of burden are hardened. In the Asphaltite lake of Judaea nothing that has life can be sunk.

[7] In Indis Siden vocari stagnum, in quo nihil innatat, sed omnia merguntur. At contra in Africae lacu Apuscidamo omnia fluitant, nihil mergitur. Marsidae fons in Phrygia saxa egerit.

[7] Among the Indians there is said to be a pool called Siden, in which nothing floats, but all things are submerged. But on the contrary, in Africa, in the lake Apuscidamus, all things float, nothing is submerged. The spring of Marsyas in Phrygia ejects stones.

In Achaia aqua profluit e saxis Styx appellata, quae ilico potata interficit.

In Achaia water flows forth from the rocks, called Styx, which, drunk on the spot, kills.

[8] Gelonium stagnum Siciliae tetro odore abigit proximantes. Fons est in Africa circa templum Ammonis, qui humoris nexibus humum stringit: favillas etiam in cespitem solidat. Fons Iob in Idumaea quater in anno colorem mutare dicitur: id est pulverulentum, sanguineum, viridem et limpidum; ternis mensibus in anno tenens ex his unum colorem.

[8] The Gelonium pool of Sicily drives away those approaching by a foul odor. There is a spring in Africa around the temple of Ammon, which binds the ground with the bonds of moisture: it even solidifies ashes into turf. The Fountain of Job in Idumaea is said to change color four times in the year: that is, pulverulent, sanguineous, green, and limpid; for three months in the year keeping one color from these.

[9] In Trogodytis lacus est; ter [in] die fit amarus et deinde totiens dulcis. Fons Siloa ad radicem montis Sion non iugibus aquis, sed in certis horis diebusque ebullit. In Iudaea quondam rivus sabbatis omnibus siccabatur.

[9] Among the Trogodytes there is a lake; three times a day it becomes bitter and then just as many times sweet. The spring Siloa at the root of Mount Sion does not have continuous waters, but boils up at set hours and days. In Judea formerly a brook used to dry up on every Sabbath.

[10] In Sardinia fontes calidi oculis medentur, fures arguunt; nam caecitate detegitur eorum facinus. In Epiro esse fontem in quo faces extinguntur accensae et accenduntur extinctae. Apud Garamantes fontem esse ita algentem die ut non bibatur, ita ardentem nocte ut non tangatur.

[10] In Sardinia hot springs heal the eyes, they arraign thieves; for by blindness their crime is uncovered. In Epirus there is a spring in which torches, when lit, are extinguished, and, when extinguished, are ignited. Among the Garamantes there is a spring so freezing by day that it is not drunk, so burning at night that it is not touched.

[11] Iam vero in multis locis aquae manant perpetim ferventes, tanta vi ut balnea calefaciant. Quaedam enim terrae sunt quae multum sulphuris et aluminis habent. Itaque cum per venas calentes aqua frigida venit, vicino sulphuris calore contacta excandescit, nec talis ab origine effluit, sed permutatur dum venit.

[11] Now indeed, in many places waters flow continually, seething, with such force that they heat baths. For there are certain soils which have much sulphur and alum. And so, when cold water comes through hot veins, touched by the neighboring heat of sulphur it grows red-hot, nor does it issue thus from its source, but is transmuted while it comes.

Sulphur enim alumenque secum ferunt aquae; utramque materiam igne plenam minimisque motibus incalescentem.

For the waters carry with them sulphur and alum; each material full of fire and heating up with the slightest motions.

XIV. DE MARI.

14. ON THE SEA.

[1] Mare est aquarum generalis collectio. Omnis enim congregatio aquarum, sive salsae sint sive dulces, abusive maria nuncupantur, iuxta illud (Genes. 1,10): "Et congregationes aquarum vocavit maria." Proprie autem mare appellatum eo quod aquae eius amarae sint.

[1] The sea is the general collection of waters. For every congregation of waters, whether they are salty or sweet (fresh), is abusively called seas, according to that (Genes. 1,10): "And the gatherings of the waters he called seas." Properly, however, it is called sea because its waters are bitter.

[2] Aequor autem vocatum quia aequaliter sursum est; et quamvis aquae fluctuantes velut montes erigantur, sedatis rursus tempestatibus adaequantur. Altitudo enim maris diversa est, indiscreta tamen dorsi eius aequalitas.

[2] The level expanse (aequor) is so called because it is equally upraised; and although the waters, fluctuating, are lifted up like mountains, once the storms are calmed they are again equalized. For the depth of the sea is diverse, yet the equality of its back is undivided.

[3] Ideo autem mare incrementum non capere, cum omnia flumina, omnes fontes recipiat, haec causa est: partim quod influentes undas ipsa magnitudo eius non sentiat: deinde, quod amara aqua dulce fluentum consumat; vel quod ipsae nubes multum aquarum ad se attrahant; sive quod illum partim auferant venti, partim sol exsiccet; postremum, quod per occulta quaedam terrae foramina percolatus, et ad caput amnium fontesque revolutus recurrat. Maris autem certum (non) esse colorem, sed pro qualitate ventorum mutari; nam modo flavum est, modo lutulentum, modo atrum.

[3] Therefore the reason why the sea does not take on increase, although it receives all rivers and all springs, is this: partly because its very magnitude does not feel the inflowing waves; next, because the bitter water consumes the sweet flow; or because the clouds themselves attract much water to themselves; or because the winds carry off part of it, and the sun desiccates part; lastly, because, having been percolated through certain hidden foramina of the earth, it returns, turned back, to the head of the rivers and the springs. Moreover, that the sea has (no) fixed color, but is changed according to the quality of the winds; for now it is yellow, now lutulent, now black.

XV. DE OCEANO.

15. ON THE OCEAN.

[1] Oceanum Graeci et Latini ideo nominant eo quod in circuli modum ambiat orbem. [Sive a celeritate, eo quod ocius currat.] Item quia ut caelum purpureo colore nitet: oceanus quasi KUANEOS. Iste est qui oras terrarum amplectitur, alternisque aestibus accedit atque recedit; respirantibus enim in profundum ventis aut revomit maria, aut resorbet.

[1] The Greeks and Latins name the Ocean for this reason, because it goes around the globe in the manner of a circle. [Or from celerity, because it runs more swiftly.] Likewise because, as the sky shines with a purple color: oceanus as if KUANEOS. This is the one that embraces the shores of the lands, and with alternating tides it advances and recedes; for with the winds breathing into the deep it either vomits back the seas, or resorbs them.

[2] Quique a proximis regionibus diversa vocabula sumpsit: ut Gallicus, Germanicus, Scythicus, Caspius, Hyrcanus, Athlanticus, Gaditanus. Nam Gaditanum fretum a Gadibus dictum, ubi primum ab Oceano maris Magni limen aperitur; unde et Hercules cum Gadibus pervenisset, columnas ibi posuit, sperans illic esse orbis terrarum finem.

[2] And it has taken diverse appellations from the nearest regions: such as Gallic, Germanic, Scythic, Caspian, Hyrcanian, Atlantic, Gaditan. For the Gaditan Strait is said from Gades, where for the first time from the Ocean the threshold of the Great Sea is opened; whence also, when Hercules had reached Gades, he set up columns there, hoping that there was the end of the orb of the lands.

XVI. DE MEDITERRANEO MARI.

16. ON THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

[1] Mare Magnum est quod ab occasu ex Oceano fluit et in meridiem vergit, deinde ad septentrionem tendit; quod inde magnum appellatur quia cetera maria in conparatione eius minora sunt. Iste est et Mediterraneus, quia per mediam terram usque ad orientem perfunditur, Europam et Africam Asiamque disterminans.

[1] The Great Sea is that which from the west flows out of the Ocean and inclines toward the south, then stretches to the north; and it is called great because the other seas are lesser in comparison with it. This is also the Mediterranean, because through the middle of the land it is poured as far as the east, distinguishing Europe and Africa and Asia.

[2] Cuius primae partis sinus, qui in Hispaniis perfunditur, Ibericus et Balearicus appellatur. Deinde Gallicus, qui Narbonensem provinciam adluit. Mox Ligusticus, qui iuxta Genuam urbem est proximus.

[2] Of which the bay of its first part, which bathes the Spains, is called the Iberian and the Balearic. Then the Gallic, which laves the Narbonensian province. Soon the Ligustic, which is nearest beside the city of Genoa.

Post haec Tyrrhenus, qui Italiam adtingit; quem Graeci Ionium, Itali Inferum vocant. Inde Siculus, qui a Sicilia usque ad Cretam vadit. Deinde Creticus, qui in Pamphyliam et Aegyptum pertendit.

After these, the Tyrrhenian, which touches Italy; which the Greeks call the Ionian, the Italians the Inferum. Then the Sicilian, which goes from Sicily as far as Crete. Next the Cretan, which stretches to Pamphylia and Egypt.

[3] Deinde Hellespontus, qui in septentrionem retorquens, anfractibus magnis iuxta Graecias et Illyricum in angustias septem stadiorum stringitur; quo Xerses ponte navibus facto in Graeciam commeavit: ibi est Abydos. Inde diffusus aequore patenti rursus stringitur et facit Propontidem; qui mox in quingentos passus coartatur, fitque Bosphorus Thracius, quo Darius copias transportavit.

[3] Then the Hellespont, which, bending back toward the north, with great anfractuous windings near the Greek regions and Illyricum is constricted into narrows of seven stadia; by which Xerxes, with a bridge made of ships, passed into Greece: there is Abydos. Thence, spread out over the open expanse of sea, it is again constricted and makes the Propontis; which soon is narrowed to five hundred paces, and becomes the Thracian Bosporus, by which Darius transported his forces.

[4] Inde Ponticus sinus amplissimus a tergo Maeotidis paludibus; quod mare ex multitudine fluminum dulcius quam cetera, nebulosumque et brevius. Vnde et Pontum vocatum, quod sit pervius; atque eo praeter phocas et thynnos atque delphinos, alias beluas maiores non patitur.

[4] Thence the most ample Pontic gulf, with the Maeotian marshes at its back; a sea which, from the multitude of rivers, is sweeter than the others, and more misty and shallower. Whence also it is called Pontus, because it is pervious; and there, besides seals and tunas and dolphins, it does not permit other larger beasts.

[5] Sicut autem terra dum una sit, pro diversis locis variis appellatur vocabulis, ita et pro regionibus hoc mare magnum diversis nominibus nuncupatur: nam Ibericum et Asiaticum a provinciis dictum; ab insulis Balearicum, Siculum, Creticum, Cyprium, Aegeum, Carpatium. Nam inter Tenedum et Chium saxum est in mare potius quam insula, quod visentibus procul caprae simile creditur, quam Graeci AIGA nuncupant, unde et Augeum mare est dictum; sic et Carpatium mare inter Aegyptum et Rhodum ab insula Carpato illic posita.

[5] Just as the earth, although it is one, is designated by various appellations according to different places, so too this great sea, according to regions, is called by different names: namely Iberian and Asiatic, named from the provinces; from the islands, Balearic, Sicilian, Cretan, Cyprian, Aegean, Carpathian. For between Tenedos and Chios there is a rock in the sea rather than an island, which to viewers from afar is believed similar to a goat, which the Greeks call AIGA, whence also the Aegean Sea is so named; so too the Carpathian Sea, between Egypt and Rhodes, from the island Carpathos situated there.

[6] A gentibus Gallicum, Ausonium, Dalmatium, Ligusticum. Ab oppidis Argolicum, Corinthium, Tyrium, Adriaticum. Nam Adria quaedam civitas Illyrico mari proxima fuit, quae Adriatico mari nomen dedit.

[6] From peoples: Gallic, Ausonian, Dalmatian, Ligustic. From towns: Argolic, Corinthian, Tyrian, Adriatic. For Adria was a certain city near the Illyrian Sea, which gave its name to the Adriatic Sea.

[7] A positione caeli, ut Superum et Inferum; quod sit oriens superior, occidens inferior; est autem Tuscum et Adriaticum. A memoria regis, ut Ionium. Io quippe rex fuit Graeciae, unde [et] Iones Athenienses.

[7] From the position of the sky, as the Upper and the Lower; since the east is higher, the west lower; moreover there are the Tuscan and the Adriatic. From the memory of a king, as the Ionian. For Ion indeed was a king of Greece, whence [also] the Ionians, the Athenians.

Hoc mare et Tyrrhenum dictum, sive quod Tusciam adluit, id est Tyrrheniam, sive a Tyrrhenis nautis, qui se in hoc mare praecipitaverunt. Et sciendum Ionium sinum esse inmensum, ab Ionia usque ad Siciliam, et huius partes esse Adriaticum, Achaicum et Epiroticum. A moribus accolarum Euxinus, Axenus ante appellatus.

This sea is also called Tyrrhenian, either because it washes Tuscany, that is Tyrrhenia, or from Tyrrhenian sailors who hurled themselves headlong into this sea. And it is to be known that the Ionian gulf is immense, from Ionia all the way to Sicily, and that its parts are the Adriatic, the Achaic, and the Epirotic. From the customs of the inhabitants comes the name Euxine, formerly called Axenus.

[8] A casibus hominum qui deciderunt in mare, ut Hellespontum, Icarium, Myrteum. Nam Myrteum mare dictum a Myrtili lapsu, quod illic ab Oenomao praecipitatus sit. Icarus vero Cretensis, ut fabulae ferunt, altiora petens, pinnis solis calore solutis mari, in quo cecidit, nomen inposuit.

[8] From the falls of men who tumbled into the sea, as the Hellespont, the Icarian, the Myrtean. For the Myrtean Sea is said to be named from the slip of Myrtilus, because there he was precipitated by Oenomaus. But Icarus the Cretan, as the fables relate, seeking higher things, his pinions loosened by the heat of the sun, imposed his name upon the sea into which he fell.

Phrixus quoque cum Helle sorore sua fugiens insidias novercales conscendit navem signum arietis habentem, qua liberatus est. Helles autem soror eius perpessa naufragium decidit in mare, et mortua Hellesponti mari nomen dedit.

Phrixus also, fleeing his stepmother’s plots with his sister Helle, boarded a ship bearing the sign of a ram, by which he was set free. But Helle, his sister, having suffered shipwreck, fell into the sea, and in death gave her name to the Hellespont sea.

[9] Ab ordine fluenti Propontis. Nam dictum Propontum quia Pontum praevenit. Item et a transitu vel angustis meatibus boum Bosphorus.

[9] From the flowing order, the Propontis. For it is called Propontus because it precedes the Pontus. Likewise also the Bosphorus, from the transit or the narrow passages of oxen.

Aegyptius autem pelagus Asiae datur, Gallicus Europae, Africus Libyae: his ut quaeque proxima sunt, venerunt in partes. Pelagus autem est latitudo maris sine litore et portu, Graeco nomine APO TOU PLAGIOU, hoc est a latitudine, dictus; unde et plagia, eo quod sint inportuosa.

But the Egyptian sea is assigned to Asia, the Gallic to Europe, the African to Libya: to these, as each is nearest, they have come into those parts. Moreover, a pelagus is the breadth of the sea without shore and harbor, called by the Greek name APO TOU PLAGIOU, that is, from latitude; whence also “plagia,” because they are harborless.

XVII. DE SINIBVS MARIS.

17. ON THE BAYS OF THE SEA.

[1] Sinus dicuntur maiores recessus maris, ut in mari Magno Ionius, in Oceano Caspius, Indicus, Persicus, Arabicus, qui et mare Rubrum, qui Oceano adscribitur.

[1] Gulfs are called the greater recesses of the sea, as in the Great Sea the Ionian, and in the Ocean the Caspian, Indian, Persian, Arabian, which is also the Red Sea, which is ascribed to the Ocean.

[2] Rubrum autem mare vocatum eo quod sit roseis undis infectum; non tamen talem naturam habet qualem videtur ostendere, sed vicinis litoribus vitiatur gurges atque inficitur; quia omnis terra, quae circumstat pelago, rubra est et sanguineo colori proxima. Ideoque inde minium acutissimum excernitur, et alii colores quibus pictura variatur.

[2] The Red Sea, moreover, is so called because it is imbued with rosy waves; yet it does not have such a nature as it seems to display, but the waters are vitiated and stained by the neighboring shores; for all the land that surrounds the sea is red and close to a sanguine hue. And therefore from there the most vivid vermilion is extracted, and other colors by which painting is variegated.

[3] Ergo cum terra hanc habeat naturam, fluctibus subinde diluitur, et quidquid adesum est, in colorem cadit. Ob hoc etiam in his litoribus gemmae rubrae inveniuntur. Lapillus enim eiusmodi humo involutus cum inter arenas attritus est, et terrae colorem habet et maris.

[3] Therefore, since the earth has this nature, it is continually washed by the waves, and whatever is eroded assumes the color. On this account, too, on these shores red gems are found. For a little stone of this kind, wrapped in soil, when rubbed among the sands, has both the color of the earth and of the sea.

[4] Hoc mare in duos sinus scinditur. Ex his, qui ab oriente est, Persicus appellatur, quia ora illius Persae inhabitant. Alter vero Arabicus dicitur, quod sit circa Arabiam.

[4] This sea is cleft into two gulfs. Of these, the one which is from the east is called the Persian, because the Persians inhabit its shore. The other, however, is called the Arabian, since it is around Arabia.

XVIII. DE AESTIBVS ET FRETIS.

18. ON TIDES AND STRAITS.

[1] Aestus ad Oceanum pertinet, fretus ad utrumque mare. Nam aestus est maris accessus vel recessus, id est inquietudo; unde et aestuaria, per qua mare vicissim tam accedit quam recedit.

[1] The tide pertains to the Ocean, the strait to both seas. For tide is the access or recession of the sea, that is, its inquietude; whence also estuaries, through which the sea in turn both advances and retreats.

[2] Fretum autem appellatum quod ibi semper mare ferveat; nam fretum est angustum et quasi fervens mare, ab undarum fervore nominatum, ut Gaditanum vel Siculum; nam freta dicta Varro (L. L. 7,22) ait quasi fervida, id est ferventia, et motum fervoris habentia.

[2] The strait, however, is appellated because there the sea is always seething; for a strait is a narrow and, as it were, boiling sea, named from the fervor of the waves, as the Gaditan or the Sicilian; for Varro (L. L. 7,22) says straits are called as though “fervid,” that is “fervent,” and possessing the motion of fervor.

[3] Fretum Siciliae, quod Rhegium dicitur, Sallustius tali ex causa vocari scribit dicens (Hist. 4,26) Italiae olim Siciliam coniunctam fuisse, et dum esset una tellus, medium spatium aut per humilitatem obrutum est aquis, aut per angustiam scissum. Et inde REGION nominatum, quia Graece abruptum hoc nomine nuncupatur.

[3] The strait of Sicily, which is called Rhegium, Sallust writes is so called for such a cause, saying (Hist. 4,26) that Italy was once conjoined to Sicily, and when it was one land, the middle space either, through low-lying, was overwhelmed by waters, or, through narrowness, was split. And from this it was named REGION, because in Greek a broken-off (abrupt) thing is designated by this name.

Est autem artissimum trium milium spatio Siciliam ab Italia dividens, fabulosis infame monstris, cuius hinc inde Scylla et Charybdis ostenditur.

Moreover, it is very narrow, dividing Sicily from Italy by a span of three miles, infamous for fabulous monsters, of which, on either side, Scylla and Charybdis are shown.

[4] Scyllam accolae saxum mari inminens appellant, simile celebratae formae procul visentibus. Vnde et monstruosam speciem fabulae illi dederunt, quasi formam hominis capitibus caninis succinctam, quia conlisi ibi fluctus latratus videntur exprimere.

[4] The dwellers call Scylla a rock overhanging the sea, similar to the celebrated form to those viewing from afar. Whence also they gave to that fable a monstrous aspect, as if a human form girded with canine heads, because the waves collided there seem to express barking.

[5] Charybdis dicta quod gurgitibus occultis naves obsorbeat; est enim mare verticosum, et inde ibi laniata naufragia profundo emergunt. Ter autem in die erigit fluctus, et ter obsorbet; nam accipit aquas ut vomat, vomit ut rursus accipiat.

[5] Charybdis is so called because with hidden whirlpools it gulps down ships; for it is a vortexed sea, and from there the torn shipwrecks emerge from the deep. Three times in the day it raises its waves, and three times it swallows; for it receives the waters so that it may vomit, and it vomits so that again it may receive.

[6] Syrtes sunt harenosa in mari loca. Syrtes autem Sallustius (Iug. 78,3) a tractu vocari dicit, quod omnia ad se trahant, et adpropinquanti vadoso mari haereant.

[6] The Syrtes are sandy places in the sea. Sallust (Iug. 78,3) says that the Syrtes are so called from “tract” (dragging), because they draw everything to themselves, and to one approaching they hold fast in a shoaly sea.

Haec autem ad mare Aegyptium vicinae sunt, et pariter admiscuntur. Vada vero sunt per qua in mari vel in fluminibus homines vel animalia pedibus vadunt, quae Vergilius (Aen. 1,111) brevia appellat, Graeci BRACHEA.

These, moreover, are adjacent to the Egyptian Sea, and are likewise commingled. But shallows are those places through which in the sea or in rivers humans or animals go wading on foot, which Vergil (Aen. 1,111) calls brevia, the Greeks BRACHEA.

XIX. DE LACIS ET STAGNIS.

19. ON LAKES AND POOLS.

[1] Sunt autem et quaedam maria quae non miscuntur Oceani fluctibus aut mari Magno, et dicuntur lacus et stagna.

[1] There are, moreover, certain seas which are not mingled with the waves of the Ocean or with the Great Sea, and are called lakes and ponds.

[2] Lacus est receptaculum in quo aqua retinetur nec miscetur fluctibus, ut lacus Asphalti, ut lacus Benacus et Larius, et ceteri quos Graeci LIMNAI, id est stagnos, vocant. Nam fontes labuntur in fluviis; flumina in freta discurrunt; lacus stat in loco nec profluit. Et dictus lacus quasi aquae locus.

[2] A lake is a receptacle in which water is held back and is not mingled with waves, as the Asphalt Lake, as Lake Benacus and Larius, and the rest which the Greeks call LIMNAI, that is, stagnant pools. For springs glide into rivers; rivers run into straits; a lake stands in place and does not flow out. And it is called lacus as if “a place of water.”

[3] Lacus Asphalti idem et mare Mortuum vocatum propter quod nihil gignit vivum, nihil recipit ex genere viventium. Nam neque pisces habet neque adsuetas aquis et laetas mergendi usu patitur aves, sed et quaecumque viventia mergenda temtaveris, quacumque arte demersa statim resiliunt, et quamvis vehementer inlisa confestim excutiuntur; sed neque ventis movetur resistente turbinibus bitumine, quo aqua omnis stagnatur, neque navigationis patiens est, quia omnia vita carentia in profundum merguntur, nec materiam ullam sustinet, nisi quae bitumine inlustratur.

[3] The Lake of Asphalt, also called the Dead Sea, is so named because it generates nothing living and receives nothing from the class of living things. For it has neither fishes, nor does it allow birds accustomed to the waters and delighted by the practice of diving; but whatever living creatures you try to submerge, by whatever art plunged, they immediately rebound, and although dashed with great force, they are at once cast off. Nor is it moved by winds, the bitumen resisting the whirlwinds, whereby all the water is stagnated; nor is it tolerant of navigation, because all things devoid of life sink into the deep; nor does it support any material, except that which is coated with bitumen.

[4] Lucernam accensam ferunt supernatare, extincto demergi lumine. Hoc et mare Salinarum dicitur, sive lacus Asphalti, id est bituminis; et est in Iudaea inter Iericho et Zoaran. Longitudo eius usque ad Zoaras Arabiae dirigitur stadiis septingentis octuaginta; latitudo stadiis centum quinquaginta usque ad viciniam Sodomorum.

[4] They say a lit lamp floats atop, but with the light extinguished it is submerged. This is also called the Sea of Salt, or the Lake of Asphalt, that is, of bitumen; and it is in Judea between Jericho and Zoar. Its length extends as far as Zoar of Arabia for 780 stadia; its breadth is 150 stadia up to the vicinity of Sodom.

[5] Lacus Tiberiadis ab oppido Tiberiade vocatus, quod quondam Herodes in honorem Tiberii Caesaris condidit. Est autem in Iudaea omnibus lacis salubrior, et ad sanitatem corporum quodammodo efficacior. Circuit stadia É

[5] The Lake of Tiberias is named from the town Tiberias, which once Herod founded in honor of Tiberius Caesar. Moreover, it is in Judea more healthful than all lakes, and in some manner more efficacious for the health of bodies. Its circuit is É stadia.

[6] Genesar lacus amplissimus in Iudaea longitudine centum quadraginta extenditur stadiis, latitudine quadraginta diffunditur, crispantibus aquis, auram non ventis, sed de se ipso sibi excreans. Vnde et Genesar dicitur Graeco vocabulo, quasi generans sibi auram; denique per diffusiora spatia lacus frequentibus auris spirantibus agitatur; unde et purior haustus eius, et ad potandum dulcis et habilis.

[6] Genesar, a most ample lake in Judea, extends in length 140 stadia, spreads in breadth 40, its waters crisping, exhaling a breeze not from winds, but from itself for itself. Whence also it is called Genesar by a Greek vocable, as if generating a breeze for itself; finally, over the more diffuse spaces the lake is agitated by frequent breezes blowing; whence both its draught is purer, and for drinking it is sweet and serviceable.

[7] Benacus lacus Italiae in Venetia, de quo fluvius nascitur Mincius; qui lacus magnitudine sui tempestates imitatur marinas.

[7] Lake Benacus of Italy in Venetia, from which the river Mincio is born; which lake, by its own magnitude, imitates marine tempests.

[8] Lucrinus et Avernus lacus Campaniae sunt. Lucrinus autem dictus quia olim propter copiam piscium vectigalia magna praestabat. Avernus autem lacus vocatus quod aves ibi supervolare non possent; nam antea silvarum densitate sic ambiebatur ut exhalantis inde per angustias aquae sulphureae odor gravissimus supervolantes aves halitu suo necaret: quam rem Augustus Caesar intellegens, deiectis silvis ex pestilentibus amoena reddidit loca.

[8] The Lucrine and Avernus are lakes of Campania. The Lucrine, moreover, was so named because formerly, on account of the abundance of fish, it furnished great revenues. Lake Avernus, however, was called so because birds could not fly over it; for previously it was so surrounded by the density of forests that the very heavy odor of the sulphureous water, exhaling thence through narrow passes, killed the birds flying over with its own breath: which thing Augustus Caesar, understanding, with the woods felled, rendered the places from pestilential to pleasant.

[9] Lacus autem idem et stagnus, ubi inmensa aqua convenit. Nam dictus est stagnus ab eo quod illic aqua stet nec decurrat.

[9] A lake, moreover, is the same as a stagnus, where an immense amount of water comes together. For it is called stagnus from the fact that there the water stands and does not flow down.

XX. DE ABYSSO.

20. ON THE ABYSS.

[1] Abyssus profunditas est aquarum inpenetrabilis, sive speluncae aquarum latentium, e quibus fontes et flumina procedunt; vel quae occulte subter eunt, unde et abyssus dictus. Nam omnes aquae, sive torrentes, per occultas venas ad matricem abyssum revertuntur.

[1] The abyss is the impenetrable profundity of waters, or the caverns of latent waters, from which fountains and rivers proceed; or those which go secretly beneath, whence also it is called “abyss.” For all waters, whether torrents, return through occult veins to the matrix‑abyss.

[2] Fluctus dicti quod flatibus fiant. Ventorum enim inpulsu agitatae aquae fluctuant. Aqua est stativa et sine motu aequalis.

[2] Waves are so called because they are made by gusts. For by the impulse of the winds, agitated waters fluctuate. Water is stationary and, without motion, level.

[3] Vnda vero, eminens liquor qui semper in motu est. Lucretius (2,151):

[3] A wave, indeed, is a protruding liquid that is always in motion. Lucretius (2,151):

Aerias undas,

Aerial waves,

id est motus, et corpus illud quod refluctuat. Nam nec unda per se aqua est, sed aqua in motu quodam et agitatione, quasi ab eundo et redeundo, unda vocata.

that is, a motion, and that body which refluctuates. For neither is a wave by itself water, but water in a certain motion and agitation, as if from going and returning, called a “wave.”

[4] Latex proprie liquor fontis est; et dicta latex quod in venis terrae lateat.

[4] Latex is properly the liquid of a spring; and it is called latex because it lies hidden in the veins of the earth.

[5] Gutta est quae stat, stilla, quae cadit. Hinc stillicidium, quasi stilla cadens. Stiria enim Graecum est, id est gutta: inde fit diminutivum, ut dicamus stilla: dum autem stat, aut pendet de tectis vel arboribus, quasi glutinosa gutta est; dum ceciderit, stilla est.

[5] A gutta is that which stands; a stilla, that which falls. Hence stillicidium, as if a “falling stilla.” For stiria is Greek, that is, “drop”: from it a diminutive is formed, so that we say stilla. But while it stands, or hangs from roofs or trees, it is as it were a glutinous (gluey) gutta; when it has fallen, it is a stilla.

[6] Spuma dicta [est] ab eo quod spuatur; sordes enim sunt undarum; unde et mustum et ea quae coquuntur spuma purgantur. Hinc et sputum.

[6] Spume [is] called from the fact that it is spat; for it is the filth of the waves; whence both must and the things that are cooked are cleansed by spume. Hence also sputum.

XXI. DE FLVMINIBVS.

21. ON RIVERS.

[1] Fluvius est perennis aquarum decursus, a fluendo perpetim dictus. Proprie autem flumen ipsa aqua, fluvius cursus aquae. Prius autem flumen quam fluvius, id est prior aqua quam decursus.

[1] A river is a perennial down-course of waters, called from flowing continually. Properly, however, flumen is the water itself; fluvius, the course of the water. Earlier, moreover, is flumen than fluvius, that is, the water prior to the course.

Duo autem sunt fluminum genera: unum torrens, alterum vivum. De quo Vergilius (Aen. 2,719):

There are, however, two kinds of rivers: one a torrent, the other living. About which Virgil (Aen. 2,719):

Donec me flumine vivo abluero.

Until I have washed myself in a living river.

[2] Torrens est aqua veniens cum impetu. Dictus autem torrens quia pluvia crescit, siccitate torrescit, id est arescit. De quo Pacuvius (13):

[2] A torrent is water coming with impetus. It is called a torrent because it grows with rain; in drought it becomes arid, that is, it dries up. About which Pacuvius (13):

Flammeo vapore torrens torret.

With fiery vapor the torrent torrefies.

Cui Graeci ab hieme nomen dederunt, nos ab aestate; illi a tempore quo succrescit, nos a tempore quo siccatur.

To which the Greeks have given a name from winter, we from summer; they from the time when it increases, we from the time when it is desiccated.

[3] Amnis fluvius est nemore ac frondibus redimitus, et ex ipsa amoenitate amnis vocatus.

[3] Amnis is a river wreathed with a grove and foliage, and takes its name from the river’s very amenity.

[4] Decursus proprie finis cursus, sive aquarum sit seu quarumlibet rerum. Rivi dicti quod deriventur ad inrigandum, id est ad inducendum aquas in agris; nam inrigare inducere est.

[4] Decursus is properly the finish of a course, whether it be of waters or of any things whatsoever. Rivulets are so called because they are derived/diverted for irrigating, that is, for inducing waters into fields; for to irrigate is to induce.

[5] Gurges proprie locus altus in flumine. Puteus est locus defossus ex quo hauritur aqua, a potatione dictus. Fons caput est aquae nascentis, quasi aquas fundens.

[5] A gurges is properly a deep place in a river. A well is a place dug down, from which water is drawn, named from potation. A spring is the head of nascent water, as if pouring out waters.

[6] Quidam autem fluviorum propriis ex causis nomina acceperunt, ex quibus nonnulli notandi sunt qui in historiis celebres memorantur.

[6] Some rivers, moreover, have received names from their proper causes, among which several are to be noted, which are celebrated in histories.

[7] Geon fluvius de Paradiso exiens atque universam Aethiopiam cingens, vocatus hoc nomine quod incremento suae exundationis terram Aegypti inriget; GE enim Graece, Latine terram significat. Hic apud Aegyptios Nilus vocatur propter limum quem trahit, qui efficit fecunditatem; unde et Nilus dictus est, quasi NEAN ILUN: nam antea Nilus Latine Melo dicebatur. Apparet autem in Nilide lacu, de quo in meridiem versus excipitur Aegypto, ubi Aquilonis flatibus repercussus aquis retroluctantibus intumescit, et inundationem Aegypti facit.

[7] The river Geon, going out from Paradise and encircling all Ethiopia, is called by this name because, with the increase of its exundation, it irrigates the land of Egypt; for GE in Greek signifies “earth” in Latin. Here among the Egyptians it is called the Nile on account of the mud it carries, which produces fecundity; whence also it is called Nilus, as if NEAN ILUN (“new mud”): for formerly the Nile in Latin was called Melo. Moreover, it appears in the Nilid lake, from which, turned toward the south, it is received by Egypt, where, struck by the blasts of the North wind, with the waters struggling back, it swells and makes the inundation of Egypt.

[8] Ganges fluvius, quem Phison sancta Scriptura cognominat, exiens de Paradiso pergit ad Indiae regiones. Dictus autem Phison, id est caterva, quia decem fluminibus magnis sibi adiunctis inpletur et efficitur unus: Ganges autem vocatus a rege Gangaro Indiae. Fertur autem Nili modo exaltari, et super Orientis terras erumpere.

[8] The river Ganges, which Holy Scripture surnames Phison, going out from Paradise goes on to the regions of India. It is called Phison, that is, “band/troop,” because, with ten great rivers joined to itself, it is filled up and is made one; Ganges, however, is named from King Gangar of India. It is reported, moreover, to rise in the manner of the Nile, and to erupt over the lands of the Orient.

[9] Tigris fluvius Mesopotamiae de Paradiso exoriens et pergens contra Assyrios, et post multos circuitus in mare Mortuum influens. Vocatus autem hoc nomine propter velocitatem, instar bestiae tigris nimia pernicitate currentis.

[9] The Tigris river of Mesopotamia, rising from Paradise and proceeding toward the Assyrians, and after many circuits flowing into the Dead Sea. Called by this name on account of its velocity, like the beast tiger running with excessive swiftness.

[10] Euphrates fluvius Mesopotamiae de Paradiso exoriens, copiosissimus gemmis, qui per mediam Babyloniam influit. Hic a frugibus, vel ab ubertate nomen accepit, nam Hebraice Ephrata fertilitas interpretatur: Mesopotamiam enim in quibusdam locis ita inrigat, sicut Nilus Alexandriam. Sallustius autem, auctor certissimus, asserit (Hist.

[10] The Euphrates river of Mesopotamia, arising from Paradise, most copious in gems, which flows through the middle of Babylonia. This received its name from the crops, or from abundance, for in Hebrew Ephrata is interpreted “fertility”: for it irrigates Mesopotamia in certain places just as the Nile [irrigates] Alexandria. But Sallust, a most certain author, asserts (Hist.

4,77) Tigrim et Euphraten uno fonte manare in Armenia, qui per diversa euntes longius dividuntur spatio medio relicto multorum milium; quae tamen terra, quae ab ipsis ambitur, Mesopotamia dicitur. Ex quo Hieronymus (sit. et nom.

4,77) that the Tigris and the Euphrates flow from one fount in Armenia, which, going by different courses, are separated farther apart, a middle space of many miles being left; yet the land which is encircled by them is called Mesopotamia. From which Jerome (sit. et nom.

202) animadvertit aliter de Paradisi fluminibus intellegendum.

202) he observes that the rivers of Paradise are to be understood otherwise.

[11] Indus fluvius orientis, qui Rubro mari accipitur.

[11] The Indus river of the East, which is received by the Red Sea.

[12] Hystaspes fuit Medorum rex antiquissimus, ex quo amnis orientis nomen accepit, qui nunc Hydaspes dicitur. De quo Lucanus É Qui dum sit fluvius Persarum, dicitur tamen contra orientem decurrere.

[12] Hystaspes was a most ancient king of the Medes, from whom the river of the East took its name, which is now called Hydaspes. Concerning which Lucan É Although it is a river of the Persians, nevertheless it is said to run against the east.

[13] Araris fluvius orientis. De quo Vergilius (Ecl. 1,63):

[13] The river Arar of the East. About which Vergil (Ecl. 1,63):

Aut Ararim Parthus bibet.

Or the Parthian will drink the Arar.

Currit enim per Parthiam et Assyriam.

For it runs through Parthia and Assyria.

[14] Bactrus fluvius orientis a rege Bactro vocatus fertur; a quo et Bactriani et urbs eorum.

[14] The river Bactrus of the East is said to be named from King Bactrus; from whom also the Bactrians and their city take their name.

[15] Choaspis Persarum fluvius, vocatus eorum lingua quod miram aquae dulcedinem habeat, adeo ut Persici reges quamdiu inter ripas Persidis fluit, sibi ex eo pocula vindicarunt. Ex hoc amne quidam Cydnum Ciliciae fluvium derivari existimant.

[15] The Choaspis, river of the Persians, so called in their tongue because it has a wondrous sweetness of water, to such a degree that the Persian kings, so long as it flows within the banks of Persia, claimed drinking-cups for themselves from it. From this river some think that the Cydnus, the river of Cilicia, is derived.

[16] Araxis amnis Armeniae, qui ab uno monte cum Euphrate diversis specubus oritur, dictus quod rapacitate cuncta prosternit. Vnde et cum Alexander eum transgredi vellet, ponte fabricato, tanta vi inundavit ut pontem dirueret. Hic brevibus intervallis ab Euphratis ortu caput tollit, ac deinde Caspium fertur in mare.

[16] The river Araxes of Armenia, which rises from one mountain together with the Euphrates by different caverns, so named because by rapacity it lays all things low. Whence also, when Alexander wished to cross it, a bridge having been constructed, it flooded with such force that it tore down the bridge. This one, at short intervals from the Euphrates’ source, lifts its head, and then is carried into the Caspian Sea.

[17] Fluvius Syriae qui vocatur Orontes iuxta Antiochiae muros decurrens, qui a solis ortu oriens non longe ab urbe mari conditur, quem de originis suae tractu Orontem veteres Latine appellavere. Cuius fluentis ex ipso impetu frigidioribus, et zephyris assidue ibi spirantibus tota civitas momentis prope omnibus refrigeratur.

[17] The river of Syria which is called Orontes, running down alongside the walls of Antioch, which, rising from the east, is emptied into the sea not far from the city—the ancients, from the tract of its origin, called it Orontes in Latin. By whose currents, cooler from their very impetus, and with zephyrs continually breathing there, the whole city is cooled at almost every moment.

[18] Iordanis Iudaeae fluvius, a duobus fontibus nominatus, quorum alter vocatur Ior, alter Dan. His igitur procul a se distantibus in unum alveum foederatis, Iordanis deinceps appellatur. Nascitur autem sub Libano monte, et dividit Iudaeam et Arabiam; qui per multos circuitus iuxta Iericho in mare Mortuum influit.

[18] The Jordan, a river of Judea, named from two springs, of which one is called Ior, the other Dan. These, therefore, being far distant from each other, when federated into one channel, it is thereafter called Jordan. It is born under Mount Lebanon, and divides Judea and Arabia; and, through many windings, near Jericho it flows into the Dead Sea.

[19] Eusis Caucaseis montibus fusus cum pluribus aliis in Eusinum se praecipitat mare; unde et nuncupatur.

[19] The Eusis, poured forth from the Caucasian mountains, together with many others, plunges into the Euxine sea; whence it is also named.

[20] Cydnus amnis Ciliciae e Tauro monte progrediens, miram aquarum habens suavitatem, et quia quidquid candidum est, "cydnum" gentili lingua Syri dicunt. Vnde et amni huic nomen datum, quia tumet aestate, quando nives solvuntur; reliquis anni temporibus tenuis est et quietus.

[20] The river Cydnus of Cilicia, proceeding from Mount Taurus, having a marvelous sweetness of waters; and because whatever is white the Syrians in their gentile tongue call “cydnum.” Whence also to this river the name was given, because it swells in summer, when the snows are loosened; in the remaining times of the year it is slender and quiet.

[21] Hylas fluvius Asiae. Pactolus fluvius Asiae, harenas aureas trahens: de quo Vergilius (Aen. 10,142):

[21] Hylas, a river of Asia. Pactolus, a river of Asia, drawing golden sands: about which Vergil (Aen. 10,142):

Pactolusque inrigat auro.

and the Pactolus irrigates with gold.

Quem pro aurato fluore aliter Chrysorrhoam vocant.

Which, for its golden flow, they otherwise call Chrysorrhoas.

[22] Hermus fluvius Asiae qui Smyrneos secat campos, et ipse fluctibus aureis et harenis plenus; a quo et Smyrna vocata est.

[22] The river Hermus of Asia, which cuts through the Smyrnaean plains, and itself full of golden billows and sands; from which also Smyrna is named.

[23] Maeander amnis Asiae flexuosus, qui recurrentibus ripis inter Cariam et Ioniam praecipitatur in sinum qui Miletum dividit et Prienen; Maeander autem vocatus quod sit flexuosus et numquam currat rectus. De quo Ovidius (Met. 2,246):

[23] The Maeander, a flexuous river of Asia, which, with re‑curving banks, is precipitated between Caria and Ionia into the gulf that divides Miletus and Priene; moreover, it was called Maeander because it is flexuous and never runs straight. Concerning which Ovid (Met. 2,246):

Curvis ludit Maeander in undis.

In curving waves the Meander plays.

[24] Tanus fuit rex Scytharum primus, a quo Tanais fertur fluvius nuncupatus, qui ex Riphaeis silvis veniens dirimit Europam ab Asia, inter duas mundi partes medius currens atque in Pontum fluens.

[24] Tanus was the first king of the Scythians, from whom the river Tanais is said to have been named, which, coming from the Riphaean forests, separates Europe from Asia, running in the midst between the two parts of the world and flowing into the Pontus.

[25] Inachus Achaiae amnis Argolicos inrigans campos, quem rex Inachus a se nominavit, qui exordium Argivae gentis primus dedit. Ibi et Erymanthus ab Erymantho monte demissus.

[25] The Inachus, a river of Achaia, irrigating the Argolic fields, which King Inachus named after himself, who first gave the beginning of the Argive nation. There also is the Erymanthus, sent down from Mount Erymanthus.

[26] Padus Italiae fluvius a iugis Alpium fusus ex tribus fontibus oritur; ex quibus uni vocabulum est Padus, qui diffusus in modum stagni amnem sinu digerit; a quo et Padus est nuncupatus. Hic a Graecis Eridanus cognominatus, ab Eridano Solis filio, quem Phaethontem dicunt; qui fulmine percussus in eodem fluvio deiectus est et extinctus. Augetur autem exortu Canis liquescentibus nivibus, et cum accessione triginta fluminum circa Ravennam in Adriaticum mare defertur.

[26] The Po, a river of Italy, poured from the ridges of the Alps, rises from three springs; of these one has the appellation Po, which, spread out in the manner of a pool, channels the stream by a bend; from which also the Po is so named. This by the Greeks is surnamed Eridanus, from Eridanus the son of the Sun, whom they call Phaethon; who, struck by a thunderbolt, was cast down and extinguished in the same river. Moreover, it is increased at the rising of the Dog, as the snows liquefy, and with the accession of thirty rivers it is borne about Ravenna into the Adriatic Sea.

[27] Tiberis Italiae fluvius a Tiberino rege Albanorum dicitur appellatus, qui in hunc fluvium cecidit, et de exitu suo nomen dedit. Nam antea Albula antiquum nomen a colore habuit, quod nivibus albus sit. Ipse est autem Tibris, qui et Tiberis; sed Tiberis in cotidiano sermone, Tibris in versu dicitur.

[27] The Tiber, a river of Italy, is said to have been called from Tiberinus, king of the Albans, who fell into this river, and from his exit (demise) gave it its name. For previously it had the ancient name Albula from its color, because it is white from the snows. It is, moreover, Tibris—which is also Tiberis; but Tiberis is said in quotidian speech, Tibris in verse.

[28] Danubius Germaniae fluvius vocari fertur a nivium copia quibus magis augetur. Iste est qui in Europa plus omnibus habet famam. Idem et Ister, quia dum per innumeras vadit gentes, mutat et nomen et maiores sibi ambiendo colligit vires.

[28] The Danube, a river of Germany, is said to be called from the abundance of snows, by which it is more greatly increased. This is the one which in Europe has more renown than all. The same is also the Ister, because, as it goes through innumerable nations, it both changes its name and, by meandering, gathers greater forces to itself.

Oritur a Germanicis iugis et occidentalibus partibus barbarorum, pergens contra orientem: sexaginta in se fluvios recipit: septem ostiis in Pontum influit.

It rises from the Germanic ridges and the occidental parts of the barbarians, advancing toward the orient: it receives into itself sixty rivers: by seven mouths it flows into the Pontus.

[29] Rhodanus Galliae fluvius ab oppido Rhodo cognominatus, quem coloni Rhodiorum locaverunt; qui rapido concitus cursu, Tyrrheni aequoris freta scindens, non modicum saepe navigantium facit periculum, dum inter se maris fluctus et amnis fluenta decertant.

[29] The Rhone, a river of Gaul, surnamed from the town Rhoda, which colonists of the Rhodians settled; which, stirred to a rapid course, cleaving the straits of the Tyrrhenian main, often makes no small danger for those sailing, while the waves of the sea and the streams of the river contend among themselves.

[30] Rhenus a Rhodani societate fertur vocatus, quoniam cum eodem ex una provincia oritur. Est autem Germaniae fluvius inter tres Europae maximos fluvios conputatus, qui a iugo Alpium usque in Oceani profunda cursus suos dirigit.

[30] The Rhine is said to be named from its fellowship with the Rhone, since it rises together with the same from one province. Moreover, it is a river of Germania, reckoned among the three greatest rivers of Europe, which directs its courses from the ridge of the Alps all the way into the depths of the Ocean.

[31] Iberus amnis, qui quondam totius Hispaniae nomen dedit.

[31] The river Iberus, which once gave its name to all Hispania.

[32] Mineus fluvius Galliciae nomen a colore pigmenti sumpsit, qui in eo plurimus invenitur.

[32] The river Mineus of Galicia took its name from the color of the pigment, which is found there in very great abundance.

[33] Durius a Graecis, quasi Doricus. Tagum fluvium Cartago Hispaniae nuncupavit, ex qua ortus procedit; fluvius harenis auriferis copiosus, et ob hoc ceteris fluviis Hispaniarum praelatus.

[33] The Durius, by the Greeks, as if “Doric.” The river Tagus Carthage of Hispania named, from which its source proceeds; a river copious in auriferous sands, and on this account preferred before the other rivers of the Spains.

[34] Baetus fluvius, qui et Baeticae provinciae nomen dedit. De quo Martialis (12,98,1):

[34] The river Baetus, which also gave its name to the province Baetica. Concerning which Martial (12,98,1):

Baetis olivifera crinem redimite corona,
aurea qui nitidis vellera tingis aquis;

Baetis, your hair wreathed with an olive-bearing corona,
you who tinge golden fleeces in your gleaming waters;

eo quod ibi lanae pulchro colore tinguntur. Baetis autem dictus eo quod humili solo decurrat: bitin enim Graeci humile vel mersum vocant.

because there the wools are dyed with a beautiful color. Baetis, however, is so named because it runs over low-lying ground: ‘bitin’ the Greeks call ‘low’ or ‘submerged’.

[35] Quaedam autem flumina in diluvio soluta mole terrarum praeclusa sunt, quaedam vero, quae non erant, abyssi tunc ruptis meatibus eruperunt.

[35] Certain rivers, however, in the deluge were shut off by a loosened mass of earth, while certain abysses, which had not existed, then burst forth when their channels were broken.

XXII. DE DILVVIIS.

22. ON FLOODS.

[1] Diluvium dictum quod aquarum clade omnia quae inundaverit deleat.

[1] A deluge is so called because, by the calamity of waters, it obliterates everything that it has inundated.

[2] Primum diluvium extitit sub Noe, quando hominum sceleribus offensus Omnipotens, toto orbe contecto, deletis cunctis, unum spatium caeli fuit ac pelagi. Cuius indicium hactenus videmus in lapidibus quos in remotis montibus conchis et ostreis concretos, saepe etiam cavatos aquis visere solemus.

[2] The first deluge existed under Noah, when, offended by the crimes of men, the Omnipotent, with the whole orb covered and all destroyed, made it one continuous expanse of sky and of sea. The indication of this we see to this day in stones which on remote mountains we are accustomed to behold concreted with conchs and oysters, often also hollowed by waters.

[3] Secundum diluvium fuit in Achaia Iacob patriarchae et Ogygi temporibus, qui Eleusinae conditor et rex fuit, nomenque loco et tempori dedit.

[3] The second deluge was in Achaea, in the times of the patriarch Jacob and Ogyges, who was founder and king of Eleusis, and he gave a name to the place and to the time.

[4] Tertium diluvium in Thessalia Moysi vel Amphictyonis temporibus fuit, qui tertius post Cecropem regnavit. Cuius temporibus aquarum inluvies maiorem partem populorum Thessaliae absumpsit paucis per refugia montium liberatis, maxime in monte Parnaso; in cuius circuitu Deucalion tunc regno potiebatur, qui tunc ad se ratibus confugientes susceptos per gemina Parnasi iuga fovit et aluit. A quo propterea genus hominum Graecorum fabulae ex lapidibus reparatum ferunt ab eo propter hominum insitam cordis duritiam.

[4] The third deluge was in Thessaly in the times of Moses or Amphictyon, who reigned third after Cecrops. In his times a deluge of waters consumed the greater part of the peoples of Thessaly, with a few delivered through the refuges of the mountains, especially on Mount Parnassus; in whose circuit Deucalion then held the kingdom, who then received those fleeing to him by rafts, and, once taken in, he cherished and nourished them along the twin ridges of Parnassus. From him, therefore, the fables report that the race of Greek mankind was repaired from stones by him, because of the innate hardness of the human heart.

[5] Sed et flumina cum insolitis aucta imbribus ultra consuetudinem, vel diuturnitatem vel magnitudinem, redundant multaque prosternunt, et ipsa diluvium dicuntur. Sciendum autem, flumina cum supra modum crescunt, non tantum ad praesens inferre damna, sed etiam et aliqua significare futura.

[5] But also rivers, when augmented by unaccustomed rains beyond custom, whether in duration or in magnitude, overflow and overthrow many things, and they themselves are called a deluge. It should be known, moreover, that when rivers rise above measure, they not only inflict damages for the present, but also signify certain things for the future.