Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] De disciplina et arte. Disciplina a discendo nomen accepit: unde et scientia dici potest. Nam scire dictum a discere, quia nemo nostrum scit, nisi qui discit.

[1] On discipline and art. Discipline took its name from learning; whence it can also be called science. For to know is said from to learn, because none of us knows except one who learns.

Aliter dicta disciplina, quia discitur plena.

Otherwise it is called discipline, because it is learned in full.

[2] Ars vero dicta est, quod artis praeceptis regulisque consistat. Alii dicunt a Graecis hoc tractum esse vocabulum ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς, id est a virtute, quam scientiam vocaverunt.

[2] But art is so called because it consists of the precepts and rules of art. Others say that this term has been derived from the Greeks from ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς, that is, from virtue, which they called knowledge.

[3] Inter artem et disciplinam Plato et Aristoteles hanc differentiam esse voluerunt, dicentes artem esse in his quae se et aliter habere possunt; disciplina vero est, quae de his agit quae aliter evenire non possunt. Nam quando veris disputationibus aliquid disseritur, disciplina erit: quando aliquid verisimile atque opinabile tractatur, nomen artis habebit.

[3] Between art and discipline Plato and Aristotle wished this difference to exist, saying that art is in those things which can also be otherwise; but discipline is that which deals with things which cannot happen otherwise. For when by true disputations something is expounded, it will be discipline: when something verisimilar and opinable is treated, it will have the name of art.

II. DE SEPTEM LIBERALIBVS DISCIPLINIS.

2. ON THE SEVEN LIBERAL DISCIPLINES.

[1] Disciplinae liberalium artium septem sunt. Prima grammatica, id est loquendi peritia. Secunda rhetorica, quae propter nitorem et copiam eloquentiae suae maxime in civilibus quaestionibus necessaria existimatur.

[1] The disciplines of the liberal arts are seven. The first is grammar, that is, expertise in speaking. The second is rhetoric, which, on account of the polish and abundance of its eloquence, is considered most necessary in civil questions.

Tertia dialectica cognomento logica, quae disputationibus subtilissimis vera secernit a falsis.

The third is dialectic, by surname logic, which by most subtle disputations separates the true from the false.

[2] Quarta arithmetica, quae continet numerorum causas et divisiones. Quinta musica, quae in carminibus cantibusque consistit.

[2] The fourth is arithmetic, which contains the causes and divisions of numbers. The fifth is music, which consists in songs and chants.

[3] Sexta geometrica, quae mensuras terrae dimensionesque conplectitur. Septima astronomia, quae continet legem astrorum.

[3] Sixth, geometric, which comprehends the measures of the earth and the dimensions. Seventh, astronomy, which contains the law of the stars.

III. DE LITTERIS COMMVNIBVS.

3. ON THE COMMON LETTERS.

[1] Primordia grammaticae artis litterae communes existunt, quas librarii et calculatores sequuntur. Quarum disciplina velut quaedam grammaticae artis infantia est; unde et eam Varro litterationem vocat. Litterae autem sunt indices rerum, signa verborum, quibus tanta vis est, ut nobis dicta absentium sine voce loquantur.

[1] The beginnings of the grammatical art are the common letters, which scribes and calculators follow. The discipline of these is, as it were, a certain infancy of the grammatical art; whence Varro also calls it litteration. Letters, moreover, are indices of things, signs of words, which have such power that they speak to us the sayings of the absent without a voice.

[Verba enim per oculos non per aures introducunt.]

[For they introduce words through the eyes, not through the ears.]

[2] Usus litterarum repertus propter memoriam rerum. Nam ne oblivione fugiant, litteris alligantur. In tanta enim rerum varietate nec disci audiendo poterant omnia, nec memoria contineri.

[2] The use of letters was discovered for the memory of things. For, lest they escape into oblivion, they are bound by letters. For amid so great a variety of things, not all could be learned by hearing, nor contained by memory.

[3] Litterae autem dictae quasi legiterae, quod iter legentibus praestent, vel quod in legendo iterentur.

[3] Letters are called, as it were, “legiterae,” because they provide a way for readers, or because in reading they are iterated.

[4] Litterae Latinae et Graecae ab Hebraeis videntur exortae. Apud illos enim prius dictum est aleph, deinde ex simili enuntiatione apud Graecos tractum est alpha, inde apud Latinos A. Translator enim ex simili sono alterius linguae litteram condidit, ut nosse possimus linguam Hebraicam omnium linguarum et litterarum esse matrem. Sed Hebraei viginti duo elementa litterarum secundum Veteris Testamenti libros utuntur; Graeci vero viginti quattuor.

[4] Latin and Greek letters seem to have arisen from the Hebrews. Among them indeed it was first said aleph; then, from a similar enunciation, among the Greeks it was drawn as alpha; thence among the Latins, A. For the Translator, from the similar sound of another language, founded the letter, so that we might know the Hebrew tongue to be the mother of all tongues and letters. But the Hebrews use twenty-two elements of letters according to the books of the Old Testament; the Greeks, however, twenty-four.

Latini enim inter utramque linguam progredientes viginti tria elementa habent.

For the Latins, advancing between both languages, have twenty-three elements.

[5] Hebraeorum litteras a Lege coepisse per Moysen: Syrorum autem et Chaldaeorum per Abraham. Unde et cum Hebraeis et numero et sono concordant, solis characteribus discrepant. Aegyptiorum litteras Isis regina, Inachis filia, de Graecia veniens in Aegyptum, repperit et Aegyptiis tradidit.

[5] The letters of the Hebrews began from the Law through Moses; but those of the Syrians and Chaldaeans through Abraham. Whence also they are in concord with the Hebrews both in number and in sound; they differ only in their characters. The letters of the Egyptians Queen Isis, daughter of Inachus, coming from Greece into Egypt, discovered and handed over to the Egyptians.

Apud Aegyptios autem alias habuisse litteras sacerdotes, alias vulgus; sacerdotales ἱερὰς, πανδήμους vulgares. Graecarum litterarum usum primi Phoenices invenerunt; unde et Lucanus (3, 220):

Among the Egyptians, moreover, the priests had one kind of letters, the populace another; the sacerdotal (letters) sacred, the popular vulgar. The use of Greek letters the Phoenicians first discovered; whence also Lucan (3, 220):

Phoenices primi, famae si creditur, ausi
mansuram rudibus vocem signare figuris.

The Phoenicians first, if fame is believed, dared
to mark the enduring voice with rude figures.

[6] Hinc est quod et Phoeniceo colore librorum capita scribuntur, quia ab ipsis litterae initium habuerunt. Cadmus Agenoris filius Graecas litteras a Phoenice in Graeciam decem et septem primus attulit; Α.Β.Γ.Δ.Ε.Ζ.Ι.Κ.Λ.Μ.Ν.Ο.Π.Ρ.C.Τ.Φ. His Palamedes Troiano bello tres adiecit Η.Χ.Ω. Post quem Simonides Melicus tres alias adiecit Ψ.Ξ.Θ

[6] Hence it is that the heads of books are written in Phoenician color as well, because from them the letters had their beginning. Cadmus, son of Agenor, first brought into Greece from Phoenicia the Greek letters, seventeen: Α.Β.Γ.Δ.Ε.Ζ.Ι.Κ.Λ.Μ.Ν.Ο.Π.Ρ.C.Τ.Φ. To these Palamedes, in the Trojan war, added three: Η.Χ.Ω. After whom Simonides the Melic added three others: Ψ.Ξ.Θ.

[7] Υ litteram Pythagoras Samius ad exemplum vitae humanae primus formavit; cuius virgula subterior primam aetatem significat, incertam quippe et quae adhuc se nec vitiis nec virtutibus dedit. Bivium autem, quod superest, ab adolescentia incipit: cuius dextra pars ardua est, sed ad beatam vitam tendens: sinistra facilior, sed ad labem interitumque deducens. De qua sic Persius ait (3, 56):

[7] The letter Υ Pythagoras the Samian first fashioned as an exemplar of human life; whose lower little stroke signifies the first age, uncertain indeed and one which has not yet given itself either to vices or to virtues. But the two-way path (bivium), which lies above, begins from adolescence: whose right part is arduous, yet tending toward a blessed life; the left easier, yet leading down to ruin and destruction. Concerning which Persius thus says (3, 56):

Et tibi qua Samios deduxit littera ramos,
surgentem dextro monstravit limite callem.

And for you, where the Samian letter drew down its branches,
it pointed out the rising footpath on the right-hand track.

[8] Quinque autem esse apud Graecos mysticas litteras. Prima Υ, quae humanam vitam significat, de qua nunc diximus. Secunda Θ, quae mortem [significat]. Nam iudices eandem litteram Θ adponebant ad eorum nomina, quos supplicio afficiebant.

[8] Moreover, there are five mystical letters among the Greeks. The first Υ, which signifies human life, about which we have just spoken. The second Θ, which [signifies] death. For the judges used to append the same letter Θ to the names of those whom they afflicted with punishment.

Et dicitur Theta ἀπὸ τοῦ θανάτου, id est a morte. Unde et habet per medium telum, id est mortis signum. De qua quidam:

And Theta is said to be from thanatos, that is, from death. Whence also it has a dart through the middle, that is, a sign of death. About which someone [says]:

O multum ante alias infelix littera theta.

O letter theta, far more ill‑fated than the others.

[9] Tertia Τ figuram demonstrans Dominicae crucis, unde et Hebraice signum interpretatur. De qua dictum est in Ezechielo angelo (9, 4): 'Transi per medium Ierusalem, et signa thau in frontes virorum gementium et dolentium.' Reliquas vero duas summam et ultimam sibi vindicat Christus. Ipse enim principium, ipse finis, dicens 'Ego sum Α et Ω.' Concurrentibus enim in se invicem Α ad Ω usque devolvitur, et rursus Ω ad Α replicatur, ut ostenderet in se Dominus et initii decursum ad finem et finis decursum ad initium.

[9] The third Τ, showing the figure of the Lord’s cross, whence also in Hebrew it is interpreted “sign.” Of which it was said in Ezekiel to the angel (9:4): ‘Pass through the midst of Jerusalem, and mark a thau on the foreheads of the men who are groaning and grieving.’ But the remaining two, the highest and the last, Christ claims for himself. For he himself is the beginning, he himself the end, saying ‘I am Α and Ω.’ For as they run together into one another in himself, the Α is rolled down as far as Ω, and in turn the Ω is folded back to Α, so that the Lord might show in himself both the course of the beginning to the end and the course of the end back to the beginning.

[10] Omnes autem litterae apud Graecos et verba conponunt et numeros faciunt. Nam Alpha littera apud eos vocatur in numeris unum. Ubi autem scribunt Beta, vocatur duo; ubi scribunt Gamma, vocatur in numeris ipsorum tres; ubi scribunt Delta, vocatur in numeris ipsorum quattuor; et sic omnes litterae apud eos numeros habent.

[10] But all the letters among the Greeks both compose words and make numbers. For the letter Alpha among them is called one in numbers. But where they write Beta, it is called two; where they write Gamma, it is called three in their numbers; where they write Delta, it is called four in their numbers; and thus all the letters among them have numbers.

[11] Latini autem numeros ad litteras non conputant, sed sola verba componunt, excepto I et X littera, quae et figura crucem significat et in numero decem demonstrat.

[11] But the Latins do not reckon numbers by letters, but compose only words, except for the letters I and X, which by their figure signify the cross and, in numbering, indicate ten.

IV. DE LITTERIS LATINIS.

4. ON LATIN LETTERS.

[1] Latinas litteras Carmentis nympha prima Italis tradidit. Carmentis autem dicta, quia carminibus futura canebat. Ceterum proprie vocata [est] Nicostrate.

[1] The nymph Carmentis first transmitted the Latin letters to the Italians. She was called Carmentis because by chants she sang the future. But properly she was named Nicostrate.

Litterae autem aut communes sunt aut liberales.

But letters are either common or liberal.

[2] Communes dictae, quia multi eas in commune utuntur, ut scribere et legere. Liberales, quia eas tantum illi noverunt, qui libros conscribunt recteque loquendi dictandique rationem noverunt.

[2] They are called common, because many use them in common, such as to write and to read. Liberal, because only those know them who compose books and know the method of speaking correctly and of dictating.

[3] Litterarum duplex modus est: dividuntur enim principaliter in duas partes, in vocales et consonantes. Vocales sunt quae directo hiatu faucium sine ulla conlisione varie emittuntur. Et dictae vocales, quod per se vocem inpleant, et per se syllabam faciant nulla adhaerente consonante.

[3] There is a twofold mode of letters: for they are divided principally into two parts, into vowels and consonants. Vowels are those which are emitted with a direct hiatus of the throat, without any collision, in varied ways. And they are called vowels because they by themselves complete the voice, and by themselves make a syllable, with no consonant adhering.

Consonantes sunt, quae diverso motu linguae vel inpressione labrorum efficiuntur. Et vocatae consonantes quia per se non sonant, sed iunctis vocalibus consonant.

Consonants are those which are produced by the diverse motion of the tongue or by the pressure of the lips. And they are called consonants because by themselves they do not sound, but, when joined to vowels, they sound with them.

[4] Haec in duabus partibus dividuntur: in semivocalibus et in mutis. Semivocales dictas eo, quod quiddam semis de vocalibus habeant. Ab E quippe vocali incipiunt, et desinunt in naturalem sonum [ut F, L, M et ceterae]. Mutae autem dictae, quia nisi subiectis sibi vocalibus nequaquam erumpunt.

[4] These are divided into two parts: into semivowels and into mutes. They are called semivowels because they have something half from the vowels. For they begin from the vowel E, and end in a natural sound [as F, L, M and the rest]. Mutes, however, are so called because, unless vowels are subjoined to them, they by no means sound forth.

Si enim eis extremum vocalis detraxeris sonum, inclusum litterae murmur sonabit [ut B, G, D et ceterae]. Vocales autem et semivocales et mutas a veteribus sonas et semisonas et insonas dictas.

If, indeed, you remove from them the extreme sound of the vowel, the enclosed murmur of the letter will sound [as B, G, D and the rest]. Moreover, vowels and semivowels and mutes were called by the ancients sonant, semisonant, and insonant.

[5] Inter vocales autem I et U apud Grammaticos varias habent significationes.

[5] Among the vowels, moreover, I and U, with the Grammarians, have various significations.

[6] Nam modo vocales sunt, modo semivocales, modo mediae sunt. Vocales ideo sunt, quia solae positae syllabas faciunt et aliis consonantibus coniunguntur. Consonantes ideo habentur, quia interdum habent post se vocales in hisdem syllabis constitutas, ut "Ianus" "vates" et habentur pro consonantibus.

[6] For sometimes they are vowels, sometimes semivowels, sometimes they are middle. They are vowels for this reason, because, when set alone, they make syllables and are conjoined with the other consonants. They are held to be consonants for this reason, because sometimes they have after them vowels constituted in the same syllables, as "Ianus," "vates," and they are held as consonants.

[7] Mediae [autem] idcirco dicuntur, quoniam naturaliter solae medium sonum habent, ut "illius" "unius" Coniunctae aliis pinguius sonant, ut "Ianus" "vanus" Solae enim aliter sonant, aliter iunctae. I vero propterea interdum duplex dicitur, quia quotienscumque inter duas vocales invenitur, pro duabus consonantibus habetur, ut "Troia" Geminatur enim ibi sonus eius.

[7] The middle ones [however] are for this reason so called, because naturally alone they have a middle sound, as "illius" "unius" Joined to others they sound more full-bodied, as "Ianus" "vanus" For alone they sound otherwise, otherwise when joined. I indeed on that account is sometimes called duplex, because whenever it is found between two vowels, it is considered as two consonants, as "Troia" For its sound is doubled there.

[8] V quoque littera proinde interdum nihil est, quia alicubi nec vocalis nec consonans est, ut quis. Vocalis enim non est, quia I sequitur; consonans non est, quia Q praecedit. Ideoque quando nec vocalis, nec consonans est, sine dubio nihil est. Eadem et digammon a Graecis vocatur, quando sibimet aliisque vocalibus iungitur: quae ideo digammon dicitur, quia duplex est instar F litterae, quac duplicem Gammam habet, ad cuius similitudinem coniunctas vocales digammon appellari grammatici voluerunt, ut "votum" "virgo"

[8] The letter V likewise is accordingly sometimes nothing, because in some places it is neither a vowel nor a consonant, as in quis. For it is not a vowel, because I follows; it is not a consonant, because Q precedes. And therefore, when it is neither a vowel nor a consonant, without doubt it is nothing. The same is also called digammon by the Greeks, when it is joined to itself and to other vowels: which for that reason is called digammon, because it is double in the likeness of the letter F, which has a double Gamma; and by that likeness the grammarians wished the conjoined vowels to be called digammon, as "votum" "virgo"

[9] Inter semivocales autem quaedam liquidae dicuntur propterea, quia interdum in una syllaba postpositae aliis consonantibus deficiunt et a metro excluduntur. Ex quibus duae apud Latinos liquescunt L et R, ut "fragor" "flatus" Reliquae M et N apud Graecos liquescunt: ut "Mnestheus"

[9] Among the semivowels, moreover, some are called liquids for this reason: because sometimes, when placed in one syllable after other consonants, they fail and are excluded from the meter. Of these, two liquesce among the Latins, L and R, as "fragor" "flatus" The remaining, M and N, liquesce among the Greeks: as "Mnestheus"

[10] Decem et septem autem Latinis litteris vetus scriptura constabat. Vnde et legitimae nominantur illa ratione, scilicet vel quod ab E vocali incipiunt et in mutum sonum desinunt, ut sunt consonantes, vel quod a suo sono incipiunt et in vocalem E desinunt, ut sunt mutae [et sunt A. B. C. D. E. F. G. I. L. M. N. O. P. R. S. T. et U].

[10] Moreover, old script consisted of seventeen Latin letters. Whence they are also called legitimate by that rationale, namely either because they begin from the vowel E and end in a mute sound, as consonants are, or because they begin from their own sound and end in the vowel E, as the mutes are [and they are A. B. C. D. E. F. G. I. L. M. N. O. P. R. S. T. and U].

[11] H autem littera pro sola aspiratione adiecta postea est. Vnde et a plerisque aspiratio putatur esse, non littera, quae proinde aspirationis nota dicitur, quia vocem elevat. Aspiratio enim est sonus uberius elatus, cuius contraria est prosodia, sonus aequaliter flexus.

[11] The letter H, however, was later added for aspiration alone. Whence by many it is thought to be an aspiration, not a letter, and so it is called the mark of aspiration, because it lifts the voice. For aspiration is a sound emitted more abundantly, whose contrary is prosody, a sound evenly inflected.

[12] K litteram Salvius ludimagister pri[m]us Latinis adiecit, ut in sono discrimen faceret duarum litterarum C et Q; quae ideo supervacua dicitur, quia exceptis "Kalendis’ superflua iudicatur: per C enim universa exprimimus.

[12] The letter K was first added to the Latins by Salvius, a schoolmaster, so that he might make a distinction in sound between the two letters C and Q; which for that reason is called superfluous, because, except for the "Kalends,’ it is judged superfluous: for by C we express all things.

[13] Q litteram nec Graeci resonant, nec Hebraei. Exceptis enim Latinis hanc nulla alia lingua habet. Haec prius non erat.

[13] The letter Q neither the Greeks sound, nor the Hebrews. For, the Latins excepted, no other language has this. This formerly was not.

Vnde et ipsa supervacua est vocata quia per C cuncta veteres scripserunt.

Whence also it has itself been called superfluous, because the ancients wrote all things with C.

[14] X littera usque ad Augusti tempus nondum apud Latinos erat, [et digne hoc tempore, quo Christi nomen innotuit, quod per eam, quae crucis signum figurat, scriptitatur,] sed pro ea C et S scribebant, unde et duplex vocatur, quia pro C et S ponitur, unde et ex eisdem litteris conpositum nomen habet.

[14] The letter X, up to the time of Augustus, was not yet among the Latins, [and fittingly in that time when the name of Christ became known, which is written by it, which figures the sign of the cross,] but in its place they used to write C and S, whence it is called double, because it is set in place of C and S, and hence it has a name composed from those same letters.

[15] A Graecis [autem] duas litteras mutuavit Latinitas, Y et Z, propter nomina scilicet Graeca, et haec apud Romanos usque ad Augusti tempus non scribebantur, sed pro Z duas S ponebant, ut "hilarissat’; pro Y vero I scribebant.

[15] From the Greeks [however] Latinity borrowed two letters, Y and Z, namely on account of Greek names; and these among the Romans were not written up to the time of Augustus, but in place of Z they set two S’s, as "hilarissat"; for Y, indeed, they wrote I.

[16] Vnicuique autem litterae tria accidunt: nomen, quomodo vocetur; figura, quo caractere signetur; potestas, quae vocalis, quae consonans habeatur. A quibusdam et ordo adicitur, id est quae praecedit, quae sequitur, ut A prior sit, subsequens B. A autem in omnibus gentibus ideo prior est litterarum, pro eo quod ipsa prior nascentibus vocem aperiat.

[16] To each letter, moreover, three things accrue: the name, how it is called; the figure, with what character it is marked; the power, whether it is held a vowel or a consonant. By some the order is also added, that is, which precedes, which follows, so that A is prior, B subsequent. But A among all peoples is therefore first of the letters, for this reason: that it first opens the voice for the newborn.

[17] Nomina autem litterarum gentes ex sono propriae linguae dederunt notatis oris sonis atque discretis. Nam postquam eas animadverterunt, et nomina illis et figuras inposuerunt: figuras autem partim ex placito, partim ex sono litterarum formaverunt: ut puta I et O, quarum uni sicut exilis sonus, ita tenuis virgula, alterius pinguis sonus, sicut et plena figura. Potestatem autem natura dedit, voluntas ordinem et apicem.

[17] But the peoples gave the names of the letters from the sound of their own language, with the sounds of the mouth marked and distinguished. For after they observed them, they imposed upon them both names and figures: and the figures they formed partly by convention, partly from the sound of the letters: for instance I and O, of which to the one, just as the sound is slender, so the stroke is thin; of the other, the sound is fat, just as also the figure is full. But nature gave the power; choice gave the order and the apex.

[18] Inter figuras litterarum et apicem veteres dixerunt, apicem dictum propter quod longe sit a pedibus, et in cacumine litterae adponatur. Est enim linea iacens super litteram aequaliter ducta. [Figura autem, qua tota littera scribitur.]

[18] Alongside the figures of the letters the ancients also spoke of the apex, so called because it is far from the feet and is set upon the summit of the letter. For it is a line lying above the letter, drawn evenly. [The figure, however, is that by which the whole letter is written.]

V. DE GRAMMATICA.

5. ON GRAMMAR.

[1] Grammatica est scientia recte loquendi, et origo et fundamentum liberalium litterarum. Haec in disciplinis post litteras communes inventa est, ut iam qui didicerant litteras per eam recte loquendi rationem sciant. Grammatica autem a litteris nomen accepit.

[1] Grammar is the science of speaking correctly, and the origin and foundation of the liberal letters. This, among the disciplines, was discovered after the common letters, so that those who had learned letters might through it know the method of speaking correctly. Moreover, grammar received its name from letters.

GRAMMATA enim Graeci litteras vocant.

For the Greeks call letters grammata.

[2] Ars vero dicta est, quod artis praeceptis regulisque consistat. Alii dicunt a Graecis hoc tractum esse vocabulum APO TES ARETES, id est a virtute, quam scientiam vocaverunt.

[2] Art, indeed, is so called because it consists in the precepts and rules of art. Others say that this vocable has been drawn from the Greeks, APO TES ARETES, that is, from virtue, which they called knowledge.

[3] Oratio dicta quasi oris ratio. Nam orare est loqui et dicere. Est autem oratio contextus verborum cum sensu.

[3] Oration is so called as if it were the reason of the mouth. For to orate is to speak and to say. Moreover, an oration is a contexture of words with sense.

Contextus autem sine sensu non est oratio, quia non est oris ratio. Oratio autem plena est sensu, voce et littera.

But a context without sense is not oration, because it is not the mouth’s reckoning. Oration, however, is full of sense, voice, and letter.

[4] Divisiones autem grammaticae artis a quibusdam triginta dinumerantur, id est, partes orationis octo: vox articulata, littera, syllaba, pedes, accentus, positurae, notae, orthographia, analogia, etymologia, glossae, differentiae, barbarismi, soloecismi, vitia, metaplasmi, schemata, tropi, prosa, metra, fabulae, historiae.

[4] But the divisions of the grammatical art by some are enumerated as thirty, that is: the eight parts of speech, articulated voice, letter, syllable, feet, accents, positures, notes/signs, orthography, analogy, etymology, glosses, differences, barbarisms, solecisms, faults, metaplasms, schemata, tropes, prose, meters, fables, histories.

VI. DE PARTIBVS ORATIONIS.

6. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

[1] Partes orationis primus Aristoteles duas tradidit, nomen et verbum; deinde Donatus octo definivit. Sed omnes ad illa duo principalia revertuntur, id est, ad nomen et verbum, quae significant personam et actum. Reliquae adpendices sunt et ex his originem trahunt.

[1] Aristotle first handed down two parts of speech, the noun and the verb; afterward Donatus defined eight. But all revert to those two principal ones, that is, to the noun and the verb, which signify the person and the act. The rest are appendices and draw their origin from these.

[2] Nam pronomen ex nomine nascitur, cuius officio fungitur, ut "orator ille" Adverbium de nomine nascitur, ut "doctus, docte" Participium de nomine et verbo, ut "lego, legens" Coniunctio vero et praepositio vel interiectio in conplexu istarum cadunt. Ideo et nonnulli quinque partes definierunt, quia istae superfluae sunt.

[2] For the pronoun is born from the noun, whose office it performs, as "that orator" The adverb is born from the noun, as "learned, learnedly" The participle from the noun and the verb, as "I read, reading" But the conjunction and the preposition or the interjection fall within the complex of these. Therefore some have even defined five parts, because those are superfluous.

VII. DE NOMINE.

7. ON THE NOUN.

[1] Nomen dictum quasi notamen, quod nobis vocabulo suo res notas efficiat. Nisi enim nomen scieris, cognitio rerum perit. Propria nomina dicta quia specialia sunt.

[1] The noun is called as if a “notamen,” because by its own word it makes things known to us. For unless you know the name, the cognition of things perishes. Proper names are so called because they are special.

Vnius enim tantum personam significant. Species propriorum nominum quattuor [sunt]: praenomen, nomen, cognomen, agnomen. Praenomen dictum eo, quod nomini praeponitur, ut "Lucius" "Quintus"

For they signify only the person of one. The species of proper names are four: praenomen, nomen, cognomen, agnomen. It is called a praenomen because it is placed before the nomen, as "Lucius" "Quintus".

[2] Nomen vocatum, quia notat genus, ut "Cornelius" Cornelii enim omnes in eo genere. Cognomen, quia nomini coniungitur, ut "Scipio" Agnomen vero quasi accedens nomen, ut "Metellus Creticus" quia Cretam subegit. Extrinsecus enim venit agnomen ab aliqua ratione.

[2] The nomen is so called because it marks the gens, as "Cornelius"; for all the Cornelii are in that gens. The cognomen, because it is conjoined to the name, as "Scipio." The agnomen, indeed, as if an acceding name, as "Metellus Creticus," because he subdued Crete. For the agnomen comes from outside, from some rationale.

Cognomentum autem vulgo dictum eo, quod nomini cognitionis causa superadiciatur, sive quod cum nomine est.

But cognomentum is commonly said for this reason, that it is super-added to the name for the cause of recognition, or because it is with the name.

[3] Appellativa nomina inde vocantur, quia communia sunt et in multorum significatione consistunt. Haec in viginti octo species dividuntur, ex quibus corporalia dicta, quia vel videntur vel tanguntur, ut "caelum" "terra"

[3] Appellative nouns are called so for this reason, because they are common and consist in the signification of many. These are divided into 28 species, among which the corporeal are so called, because they are either seen or touched, as "heaven" "earth"

[4] Incorporalia, quia carent corpus; unde nec videri nec tangi possunt, ut "veritas" "iustitia"

[4] Incorporeals, because they lack a body; whence they can neither be seen nor touched, as "truth" "justice"

[5] Generalia, quia multarum rerum sunt, ut "animal" Nam et homo et equus et avis animal sunt.

[5] General terms, because they pertain to many things, as "animal." For both a man and a horse and a bird are animals.

[6] Specialia, quia partem demonstrant, ut "homo" Species enim animalium homo.

[6] Specialia, because they demonstrate a part, as "man"; for man is a species of animals.

[7] Principalia, quia primam positionem habent, nec aliunde nascuntur, ut "mons" "fons"

[7] Principal, because they have the first position, and are not born from elsewhere, as "mountain" "fount"

[8] Derivativa eo, quod ex alio nomine deducantur, ut a monte "montanus"

[8] Derivatives, because they are deduced from another name, as from a mountain, "montanus".

[9] Diminutiva, quia minuunt sensum, ut "Graeculus" "scholasticulus"

[9] Diminutives, because they diminish the sense, as "Graeculus" "scholasticulus"

[10] Sono diminutiva, quia sic sonant sicut diminutiva, sed intellectu principalia sunt, ut "tabula" "fabula"

[10] They are diminutives by sound, because thus they sound like diminutives, but in understanding they are principal, as "tabula" "fabula"

[11] Tota Graeca, quia ex toto Graece declinantur, ut "Callisto" Sic enim [et] Graecus et Latinus dicit.

[11] Entirely Greek, because they are declined wholly in Greek, as "Callisto." For thus indeed [also] both the Greek and the Latin say it.

[12] Tota Latina, quia ex toto in Latinum vertuntur. Graecus dicit "Odysseus" Latinus "Vlixes"

[12] Entirely Latin, because they are rendered wholly into Latin. A Greek says "Odysseus", a Latin "Ulysses".

[13] Media dicta quia ex parte Graeca sunt, ex parte Latina. Eadem et notha, quia corrumpunt ultimas syllabas manentibus prioribus, ut apud Graecos "Alexandros" "Menandros’; apud nos "Alexander" "Menander" Dicta autem notha, quemadmodum nothus dicitur quisquis de dispari genere nascitur.

[13] Called “middle” because they are in part Greek, in part Latin. The same also “bastard,” because they corrupt the last syllables while the earlier remain, as among the Greeks “Alexandros” “Menandros”; among us “Alexander” “Menander.” But they are called “bastard” just as “nothus” is said of anyone born from a disparate kind.

[14] Synonyma, hoc est plurinomia, eo quod sit in pluribus nominibus significatio una, ut "terra" "humus" "tellus" Idem enim sunt omnia.

[14] Synonyms, that is plurinomy, because there is in several names one signification, as "terra" "humus" "tellus" For all are the same.

[15] Homonyma, hoc est uninomia, eo quod sit in uno nomine significatio plurima, ut "tumulus" nunc mons brevis, nunc tumens tellus, nunc sepulchrum. Est enim in uno nomine significatio diversa.

[15] Homonyms, that is, uninomials, because in one name there is a plurality of signification, as "tumulus" now a short hill, now swelling earth, now a sepulcher. For in one name there is a diverse signification.

[16] Relativa dicta eo, quod ad aliam referantur personam, ut "magister" "dominus" "pater"

[16] Relative terms are so called because they are referred to another person, as "teacher" "lord" "father"

[17] Illa autem quae dicuntur ad aliquid qualiter se habentia, a contraria significatione dicta sunt, ut "dexter" Dici enim dexter non potest, nisi sinister fuerit.

[17] But those things which are said as being in some way related to something are named from a contrary signification, as “dexter”: for “dexter” cannot be said unless there be “sinister.”

[18] Porro qualitatis nomina ex eo dicta, quia per ea qualis quisque sit ostenditur, ut "sapiens’, "formosus" "dives"

[18] Furthermore, the names of quality are so called because through them it is shown of what sort each person is, as "wise’, "beautiful" "rich"

[19] Quantitatis, quia a mensura trahantur, ut "longus" "brevis"

[19] Of quantity, because they are drawn from measure, as "long" "short"

[20] Patronymica dicuntur eo, quod trahuntur a patribus, ut "Tydides’ Tydei filius, "Aeneius’ Aeneae filius, quamvis et a matribus et a maioribus ducantur.

[20] Patronymics are so called because they are drawn from fathers, as "Tydides’ son of Tydeus, "Aeneius’ son of Aeneas, although they are also derived from mothers and from ancestors.

[21] Ctetica, id est possessiva, a possessione, ut "Evandrius ensis"

[21] Ctetics, that is possessives, from possession, as "Evandrian sword"

[22] Epitheta, quae Latine adiectiva vel superposita appellantur, eo quod ad inplendam sui significationem nominibus adiciantur, ut "magnus" "doctus" Adicis ea personis, ut "magnus philosophus" "doctus homo" et plenus est sensus.

[22] Epithets, which in Latin are called adjectives or superposed, because they are added to nouns to fill out their signification, as "magnus" "doctus". You add them to persons, as "magnus philosophus" "doctus homo", and the sense is full.

[23] Actualia ab actu descendunt, ut "dux" "rex" "cursor" "nutrix" "orator" Gentis a gente veniunt, ut "Graecus" "Romanus"

[23] Actualia descend from act, as "dux" "rex" "cursor" "nutrix" "orator". Gentile terms come from gens, as "Graecus" "Romanus"

[24] Patriae a patria descendunt, ut "Atheniensis" "Thebanus" Loci a loco, ut "suburbanus"

[24] Patrial terms descend from “fatherland,” as "Athenian" "Theban" Place-terms from “place,” as "suburban"

[25] Verbialia dicuntur, quia de verbo nascuntur, ut "lector"

[25] Verbials are so called, because they are born from a verb, as "lector"

[26] Participalia, quae sic sonant sicut participia, ut "legens" Verbis similia, a verbi similitudine dicta, ut "contemplator" Nam et verbum est imperativi modi, futuri temporis, et nomen, quia conparationem recipit. Haec omnes species a nominum appellatione descendunt.

[26] Participials, which thus sound like participles, as "legens" Similar to verbs, called from a likeness to the verb, as "contemplator" For it is both a verb of the imperative mood, of future time, and a noun, because it receives comparison. All these kinds descend from the appellation of nouns.

[27] Secunda pars nominis conparatio. Conparatio dicta quia ex alterius conparatione alterum praefert. Cuius gradus tres sunt: positivus, conparativus, [et] superlativus.

[27] The second part of the noun is comparison. Comparison is so called because, from the comparison of one with another, it sets one before the other. Whose degrees are three: positive, comparative, [and] superlative.

Positivus dictus quia primus ponitur in conparationis gradu, ut "doctus" Conparativus ab eo, quod conparatus positivo praefertur illi, ut "doctior’; plus enim novit quam doctus. Superlativus eo, quod conparativo superferatur, ut "doctissimus’; plus enim scit quam doctior.

Positive is so called because it is placed first in the degree of comparison, as "learned". The comparative from the fact that, when compared to the positive, it is preferred to it, as "more learned’; for he knows more than the learned. The superlative from the fact that it is borne above the comparative, as "most learned’; for he knows more than the more learned.

[28] Genera dicta sunt quod generent, ut masculinum et femininum. Cetera nomina non sunt genera, sed hoc nominum ratio et auctoritas voluit. Neutrum dictum quia nec hoc est nec illud, id est nec masculinum nec femininum. Commune dictum quia duobus generibus nomen unum communicat, ut "hic’ et "haec canis"

[28] Genders are so called because they engender, as masculine and feminine. The other names are not genders, but this the rule and authority of nouns has willed. Neuter is so called because it is neither this nor that, that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Common is so called because one name shares in two genders, as "hic’ and "haec canis"

[29] Cui contrarium est epicoenon, quia utrumque sexum sub uno genere enuntiat, ut "hic piscis" Est enim incerti sexus, quod nec natura nec oculis discernitur, sed sensus tantum peritia. Omne genus dictum, quia cunctis generibus servit: masculino et feminino, [et] neutro et communi et omni.

[29] To which the contrary is the epicene, because it enunciates both sexes under one gender, as "this fish" For it is of uncertain sex, which is discerned neither by nature nor by the eyes, but only by the expertise of sense. The "all-gender" is so called, because it serves all genders: masculine and feminine, [and] neuter and common and every.

[30] Numerus vocatus quia per eum vel singularia vel pluralia nomina ostenduntur. Figura, quia vel simplicia vel conposita sunt.

[30] Number is so called because through it either singular or plural nouns are shown. Figure, because they are either simple or composite.

[31] Casus a cadendo dicti; per eos enim inflexa nomina variantur et cadunt. Nominativus casus dictus quia per eum aliquid nominamus, ut "hic magister" Genetivus, quia per eum genus cuiuscumque quaerimus, ut "huius magistri filius" vel quod rem significamus, ut "huius magistri liber"

[31] Cases are so called from falling; for by them inflected nouns are varied and “fall.” The Nominative case is so called because through it we name something, as "this teacher" Genitive, because through it we inquire the kind of anything, as "the son of this teacher," or because we signify the thing, as "the book of this teacher."

[32] Dativus, quia per eum nos dare alicui aliquid demonstramus, ut "da huic magistro" Accusativus, quia per eum aliquem accusamus, ut "accuso hunc magistrum" Vocativus, quia per eum aliquem vocamus, ut "o magister" Ablativus, quia per eum nos auferre aliquid cuiquam significamus, ut "aufer a magistro"

[32] The Dative, because through it we demonstrate that we give something to someone, as "give to this teacher" The Accusative, because through it we accuse someone, as "I accuse this teacher" The Vocative, because through it we call someone, as "O teacher" The Ablative, because through it we signify that we take away something from anyone, as "take away from the teacher"

[33] Hexaptota nomina dicta eo, quod per sex casus varietates habent, ut est "unus" Pentaptota, quod tantum in quinque casibus variantur, ut "doctus" Tetraptota, quod tantum in quattuor casibus declinentur, ut "lateris" Triptota, quod tantum in tribus, ut "templum" Diptota, quod tantum in duobus, ut "Iuppiter" Monoptota, quod uno tantum casu utuntur, ut "frugi"

[33] Hexaptote nouns are so called because through six cases they have variations, as is "unus" Pentaptote, because they are varied only in five cases, as "doctus" Tetraptote, because they are declined only in four cases, as "lateris" Triptote, because only in three, as "templum" Diptote, because only in two, as "Iuppiter" Monoptote, because they use only one case, as "frugi"

VIII. DE PRONOMINE.

8. ON THE PRONOUN.

[1] Pronomen dictum, quia pro vice nominis ponitur, ne fastidium faciat nomen ipsud dum iteratur. Nam cum dicimus, "Vergilius scripsit Bucolica" addimus pronomen, "ipse scripsit Georgica’; sicque varietas significationis et fastidium tollit et ornatum inducit.

[1] “Pronoun” is so called because it is put in place of a noun, lest the noun itself, while it is repeated, cause tedium. For when we say, "Vergil wrote the Bucolics" we add a pronoun, "he himself wrote the Georgics"; and thus the variety of expression both removes tedium and introduces ornament.

[2] Pronomina autem aut finita sunt, aut infinita. Finita pronomina dicta eo, quod definiunt certam personam, ut "ego’; me enim statim intelligis. Infinita dicuntur, quia non sunt certae personae.

[2] Pronouns, moreover, are either finite or infinite. Finite pronouns are so called because they define a certain person, as "ego’; for you understand me at once. They are called infinite, because they are not of a certain person.

De absentibus enim dicitur et incertis, ut "quis" "quae" "quod" Minus quam finita appellantur quia commemorationem faciunt notae personae, ut "ipse" "iste" Certum est enim de quo dicitur.

For it is said of absentees and of the uncertain, as "quis" "quae" "quod" Less-than-finite they are called because they make a commemoration of a known person, as "ipse" "iste" For it is certain about whom it is said.

[3] Possessiva vocantur eo, quod aliquid nos possidere ostendunt. Nam dum dico "meus" "tuus" definio aliquid meum esse, vel tuum. Relativa dicuntur, quia ad interrogationem referuntur, ut "quis est?’ respondetur, "is est" Demonstrativa, eo quod habent demonstrandi significationem.

[3] They are called possessives because they show that we possess something. For when I say "my" "your" I define something to be mine, or yours. They are called relatives, because they are referred to an interrogation, as to "who is it?’ the response is, "he is." Demonstratives, because they have the signification of demonstrating.

Aliquem enim praesentem his demonstramus, ut "hic" "haec" "hoc’: quae tria et articuli nominantur.

For we demonstrate someone present by these, as "hic" "haec" "hoc": which three are also called articles.

[4] Articuli autem dicti, quod nominibus artantur, id est conligantur, cum dicimus "hic orator" Inter articulum autem et pronomen hoc interest, quod articulus tunc est, quum nomini coniungitur, ut "hic sapiens" Cum vero non coniungitur, demonstrativum pronomen est, ut "hic et haec et hoc"

[4] Articles, however, are so called because they are fitted to nouns, that is, bound together, when we say "hic orator" The difference, however, between an article and a pronoun is this: that it is an article when it is joined to a noun, as "hic sapiens" But when it is not joined, it is a demonstrative pronoun, as "hic et haec et hoc"

[5] Omnia autem pronomina aut primogenia sunt aut deductiva. Primogenia dicta sunt quia aliunde originem non trahunt. Haec viginti et unum sunt.

[5] But all pronouns are either primigenial or derivative. They are called primigenial because they do not draw their origin from elsewhere. These are twenty-one.

Finita tria: "ego" "tu" "ille" Infinita septem: "quis" "qualis" "talis" "quantus" "tantus" "quotus" "totus" Minus quam finita sex: "iste" "ipse" "hic" "is" "idem" "sui" Possessiva quinque: "meus" "tuus" "suus" "noster" "vester" Reliqua autem deductiva dicuntur, quia ex istis deducta atque conposita existunt, ut "quispiam" "aliquis" et reliqua.

Finite three: "ego" "tu" "ille" Indefinite seven: "quis" "qualis" "talis" "quantus" "tantus" "quotus" "totus" Less-than-finite six: "iste" "ipse" "hic" "is" "idem" "sui" Possessives five: "meus" "tuus" "suus" "noster" "vester" The remaining, moreover, are called derived, because from these they are derived and composed, as "quispiam" "aliquis" and the rest.

IX. DE VERBO.

9. ON THE VERB.

[1] Verbum dictum eo, quod verberato aere sonat, vel quod haec pars frequenter in oratione versetur. Sunt autem verba mentis signa, quibus homines cogitationes suas invicem loquendo demonstrant. Sicut autem nomen significat personam, ita verbum factum dictumque personae.

[1] The verb is so called because it sounds when the air is beaten, or because this part is frequently engaged in oration. But words are signs of the mind, by which human beings, by speaking, demonstrate their cogitations to one another in turn. And as the noun signifies the person, so the verb [signifies] the fact and dictum (saying) of the person.

In persona verbi agentis et patientis significatio est. Nam "scribo’ personae factum est. Item "scribor’ personae factum indicat, sed eius a quo patitur.

In the person of the verb there is the signification of agent and patient. For "I write’ is the act of the person. Likewise "I am written’ indicates the act of the person, but that of the one by whom he is acted upon.

[2] Verborum genera duo sunt: grammaticorum atque rhetorum. Grammaticorum in tria cadunt tempora: praeteritum, instans, futurum, ut "fecit" "facit" "faciet" Rhetorum autem universa oratio verba dicuntur veluti, "verbis bonis nos cepit" "verba bona habuit" ubi non tantum verba, quae in tria cadunt tempora, sed universa oratio est. Verborum species sunt formae, modi, coniugationes, et genera [et tempora].

[2] There are two kinds of verbs: of the grammarians and of the rhetors. The grammarians’ fall into three tenses: past, present, future, as "fecit" "facit" "faciet". But among the rhetors the entire oration is called "words," as, "with good words he captured us" "he had good words," where not only the verbs, which fall into three tenses, are meant, but the entire oration. The species of verbs are forms, moods, conjugations, and kinds [and tenses].

[3] Formae verborum inde dictae eo, quod nos ad unamquamque rem informent. Per has enim ostendimus quid agamus. [Nam] Meditativa dicta est a meditantis sensu, ut "lecturio" id est legere volo.

[3] The forms of verbs are called thus because they inform us for each particular thing. For through these we show what we do. [For] the Meditative is so named from the sense of one meditating, as "lecturio," that is, I wish to read.

Inchoativa post meditationem ab inchoantis indicio, ut "calesco" Frequentativa a saepius agendo, ut "lectito" "clamito" Formae enim sensum tenent, modi declinationem. Nam nescis quid sit declinatio, nisi prius didiceris quid sit sensus.

Inchoatives after the meditative, from the indication of one beginning, as "calesco" Frequentatives from doing more often, as "lectito" "clamito" For forms hold the sense, moods the declension. For you do not know what declension is, unless you have first learned what sense is.

[4] Modi dicti ab eo, quemadmodum sint in suis significationibus. Indicativus enim modus dicitur, quia significationem habet indicantis, ut "lego" Inperativus, quia sonum habet inperantis, ut "lege" Optativus, quia per ipsum aliquid agere optamus, ut "utinam legerem" Coniunctivus, quia ei coniungitur aliquid, ut locutio plena sit. Nam quando dicis "cum clamem" pendet sensus; quod si dicam "cum clamem, quare putas quod taceam?’ plenus est sensus.

[4] The modes are so called from the manner in which they are in their significations. For the Indicative mode is so called because it has the signification of one indicating, as "I read" The Imperative, because it has the sound of one commanding, as "read" The Optative, because through it we desire to do something, as "would that I were reading" The Conjunctive, because something is joined to it, so that the discourse may be full. For when you say "when I shout" the sense hangs; but if I say "when I shout, why do you think that I am silent?’ the sense is full.

[5] Infinitus [modus] dicitur eo, quod tempora definiens personam verbi non definit, ut "clamare" "clamasse" Cui si adiungas personam: "clamare debeo, debes, debet" fit quasi finitum. Inpersonalis dicitur, quia indiget personam nominis vel pronominis, ut "legitur’: addes personam "a me" "a te" "ab illo" et plene sentitur. Sed infinitus modus personam tantum verbi eget: inpersonalis vero vel pronominis personam vel nominis.

[5] The infinite [mood] is so called because, while defining the tenses, it does not define the person of the verb, as "clamare" "clamasse." If you add a person to it: "clamare debeo, debes, debet," it becomes as it were finite. The impersonal is so called, because it needs the person of a noun or of a pronoun, as "legitur": you will add a person "by me" "by you" "by him," and it is fully understood. But the infinitive mood needs only the person of the verb; the impersonal, on the other hand, needs either the person of a pronoun or of a noun.

[6] Coniugatio dicitur eo, quod per eam ad unum sonum multa coniungantur. Docet enim in quam syllabam exeat futurum tempus, ne per inperitiam quis dicat "legebo" pro "legam" Harum prima et secunda mittunt futurum tempus in "bo’ et in "bor" tertia in "am’ et in "ar"

[6] Conjugation is so called because through it many things are conjoined to one sound. For it teaches on which syllable the future tense ends, lest through inexperience someone say "legebo" instead of "legam." Of these, the first and second send the future tense into "bo’ and into "bor," the third into "am’ and into "ar."

[7] Genera verborum ideo dicta, quia gignant. Nam activo adicis R et gignit passivum; rursum passivo adimis R et parit activum. Ipsa autem activa dicuntur quia agunt[ur], ut "verbero" [et] passiva, quia patiuntur, ut "verberor’; neutralia, quia nec agunt nec patiuntur, ut "iaceo" "sedeo" His si R litteram adicis, non sonant Latine.

[7] The genera of verbs are so called because they engender. For to the active you add R and it begets the passive; conversely, from the passive you take away R and it brings forth the active. The actives themselves are so called because they act, as "verbero", and the passives because they suffer, as "verberor"; the neuters, because they neither act nor suffer, as "iaceo" "sedeo". To these, if you add the letter R, they do not sound Latin.

Communia dicuntur quia et agunt et patiuntur, ut "amplector" Haec similiter, deposita R littera, Latina non sunt. Deponentia vero dicuntur, quia deponunt futuri temporis participium a significatione passiva, quod exit in "dus" ut "gloriandus"

They are called common because they both act and suffer, as “amplector.” These likewise, with the letter R removed, are not Latin. But they are called deponents because they lay down the participle of future time from the passive signification, which ends in “dus,” as “gloriandus.”

X. DE ADVERBIO.

10. ON THE ADVERB.

[1] Adverbium dictum est eo, quod verbis accedat, ut puta, "bene lege" "Bene’ adverbium est, "lege’ verbum. Inde ergo dictum adverbium, quod semper verbo iunctum adinpleatur. Verbum enim solum sensum inplet, ut "scribo" Adverbium autem sine verbo non habet plenam significationem, ut "hodie" Adicis illi verbum, "hodie scribo" et iuncto verbo inplesti sensum.

[1] It is called an adverb because it is added to verbs, for instance, "read well"; "well’ is an adverb, "read’ a verb. Therefore it is called an adverb because it is always fulfilled when joined to a verb. For the verb alone fills out the sense, as "I write." But an adverb without a verb does not have full signification, as "today." Add to it a verb, "today I write," and with the verb joined you have completed the sense.

XI. DE PARTICIPIO.

11. ON THE PARTICIPLE.

[1] Participium dictum, quod nominis et verbi capiat partes, quasi particapium. A nomine enim vindicat sibi genera et casus, a verbo tempora et significationes, ab utrisque numerum et figuram.

[1] The participle is so called because it takes parts of both noun and verb, as it were a "parti-taker." For from the noun it claims for itself genders and cases, from the verb tenses and significations, and from both number and form.

XII. DE CONIVNCTIONE.

12. ON THE CONJUNCTION.

[1] Coniunctio dicta, quod sensus sententiasque coniungat. Haec enim per se nihil valet, sed in copulatione sermonum quasi quoddam exhibet glutinum. Aut enim nomina sociat, ut "Augustinus et Hieronymus’: aut verba, ut "scribit et legit" Vna autem vis omnium, sive copulent, sive disiungant.

[1] Conjunction is so called because it joins senses and sentences. This by itself has no force, but in the coupling of discourses it exhibits, as it were, a kind of glue. For it either associates names, as "Augustine and Jerome": or verbs, as "writes and reads" One and the same force belongs to all, whether they couple or disjoin.

[2] Copulativae autem coniunctiones dictae eo, quod sensum vel personas coniungant, ut "ego et tu eamus ad forum" Ipsud "et’ sensum coniunxit. Disiunctivae dictae, quia disiungunt res aut personas, ut "ego aut tu faciamus" Subiunctivae dicuntur, quia subiunguntur, ut "que" Dicimus enim "regique hominique Deoque’; non dicimus, "que regi, que homini"

[2] Copulative conjunctions are so called because they conjoin the sense or the persons, as "ego et tu eamus ad forum" That very "and’ joined the sense. Disjunctives are so called because they disjoin things or persons, as "ego aut tu faciamus" Subjunctives are so called because they are subjoined, as "que" We say, namely, "regique hominique Deoque’; we do not say, "que regi, que homini"

[3] Expletivae dictae, quia explent propositam rem, ut puta, "si hoc non vis, saltim illud fac" Communes nominantur, quia ubivis ponuntur [et subiunguntur], ut "igitur hoc faciam" "hoc igitur faciam"

[3] They are called expletive, because they fill out the proposed matter, for example, "if you do not want this, at least do that" They are named common, because they are placed anywhere [and are subjoined], as "therefore I will do this" "this therefore I will do"

[4] Causales dicuntur a causa eo, quod aliquid cogitent facere, ut puta, "occido illum, quia habet aurum’; causa est. Rationales dicuntur a ratione, qua quisque utitur in faciendo, ut "quomodo eum occidam, ne agnoscar? veneno an ferro?’

[4] Causals are called from cause, because they consider doing something, for example, "I kill that man, because he has gold’; that is the cause. Rationals are called from reason, which each person uses in doing, as "How shall I kill him, lest I be recognized? by poison or by iron?’

XIII. DE PRAEPOSITIONE.

13. ON THE PREPOSITION.

[1] Praepositio dicta, quod nominibus praeponatur et verbis. Accusativae et ablativae praepositiones a casibus, quibus serviunt, dictae. Loquellares vero, quia loquellis, id est verbis semper cohaerent, nec aliquid valent solae positae, ut "di" "dis" Coniunctae vero verbis figuram faciunt, ut "diduco" "distraho"

[1] Preposition is so called, because it is set before nouns and verbs. Accusative and ablative prepositions are named from the cases which they serve. The loquellary ones, moreover, because they always cohere with loquellae, that is, with words, have no force when set alone, as "di" "dis". Joined to verbs, however, they make a figure, as "diduco" "distraho"

XIV. DE INTERIECTIONE.

14. ON THE INTERJECTION.

[1] Interiectio vocata, quia sermonibus interiecta, id est interposita, affectum commoti animi exprimit, sicut cum dicitur ab exultante "vah" a dolente "heu" ab irascente "hem" a timente "ei" Quae voces quarumcumque linguarum propriae sunt, nec in aliam linguam facile transferuntur.

[1] Called an interjection, because it is interjected in discourse, that is, interposed, it expresses the affect of an agitated mind, as when it is said by one exulting “vah,” by one grieving “heu,” by one angering “hem,” by one fearing “ei.” These utterances are proper to whatever languages, nor are they easily transferred into another language.

XV. DE LITTERIS APVD GRAMMATICOS.

15. ON THE LETTERS AMONG THE GRAMMARIANS.

[1] [Quot sint articulatae voces. Et dicta littera quasi legitera, eo quod legentibus iter praebeat vel in legendo iteretur.]

[1] [How many articulated voices there are. And the letter is called littera, as if legitera, because it provides a way to readers, or in reading is iterated.]

XVI. DE SYLLABA.

16. ON THE SYLLABLE.

[1] Syllaba Graece, Latine conceptio sive conplexio dicitur. Nam syllaba dicta est APO TOU SULLAMBANEIN, id est a conceptione litterarum. SULLAMBANEIN enim dicitur concipere.

[1] Syllable in Greek; in Latin it is called conception or complexion. For syllable is said from APO TOU SULLAMBANEIN, that is, from the conception of letters. For SULLAMBANEIN is said to mean to conceive.

Vnde vera illa est syllaba, quae ex pluribus nascitur litteris. Nam unam vocalem pro syllaba abusive, non proprie dici, quae non tam syllaba dicenda est quam ratio temporum. Syllabae autem aut breves sunt, aut longae, aut communes.

Whence that is the true syllable which is born from several letters. For a single vowel is called a syllable abusively, not properly, which is not so much to be called a syllable as a reckoning of times. Syllables, moreover, are either short, or long, or common.

[2] Breves vocatae, quia numquam produci possunt. Longae, quia semper producuntur. Communes autem, quia pro scribentis arbitrio cum necessitas cogit et producuntur et corripiuntur.

[2] Short are so called, because they can never be lengthened. Long, because they are always lengthened. Common, however, because at the writer’s discretion, when necessity compels, they are both lengthened and shortened.

Lege Donatum. Ideo autem syllabae longae brevesque dicuntur, quia per varias vocum moras aut dupla aut simpla spatia temporis habere videntur. Dipthongae syllabae Graeco nomine dictae, quod in eis binae vocales iunguntur.

Read Donatus. And syllables are called long and short for this reason: because, through the various delays of the voice, they seem to have spans of time either double or simple. Diphthong syllables are so called by a Greek name, because in them two vowels are joined.

[3] Ex his apud nos veras esse quattuor: "ae" "oe"’ au" "eu" "Ei’ vero apud maiores tantum celebrata fuit. Syllaba autem apud metricos ideo semipes nominatur, quod sit dimidius pes. Nam pes duabus constat syllabis.

[3] Of these, among us four are true: "ae" "oe"’ au" "eu" "Ei’ indeed was celebrated only among the ancients. The syllable, however, among the metricians is therefore called a half-foot (semipes), because it is a half foot. For a foot consists of two syllables.

Cum ergo syllaba una est, quasi dimidius pes est. Dionysius Lintius syllabarum omnium singulas formas aptissimas fecit, et ob id statua honoratus est.

Accordingly, when there is one syllable, it is as if a half-foot. Dionysius Lintius made the most fitting individual forms of all the syllables, and on that account was honored with a statue.

XVII. DE PEDIBVS.

17. ON FEET.

[1] Pedes sunt, qui certis syllabarum temporibus insistunt, nec a legitimo spatio umquam recedunt. Pedes dicti eo, quod per ipsos metra ambulent. Nam sicut nos pedibus incedimus, ita metra quasi pedibus gradiuntur.

[1] Feet are those which rest upon fixed durations of syllables, nor do they ever depart from the legitimate span. They are called feet because meters walk by means of them. For just as we advance with our feet, so meters, as it were, take steps with feet.

Pedes autem omnes centum viginti quattuor sunt: disyllabi quattuor, trisyllabi octo, tetrasyllabi sedecim, pentasyllabi triginta duo, hexasyllabi sexaginta quattuor. Vsque ad quattuor autem syllabas pedes dicuntur, reliqui syzygiae vocantur.

But all the feet are 124: disyllabic 4, trisyllabic 8, tetrasyllabic 16, pentasyllabic 32, hexasyllabic 64. Up to four syllables, however, they are called feet; the rest are called syzygies.

[2] Ipsi autem pedes habent speciales causas nominum, quare ita vocentur. Pyrrichius dictus est, quia hic assidue vel in certamine, vel in ludo puerili saepius frequentabatur. Spondeus dicitur quia tractim sonat.

[2] The feet themselves, moreover, have special reasons for their names, why they are so called. The Pyrrhic is so named because it was assiduously practiced either in combat or, more frequently, in boyish play. The Spondee is so called because it sounds drawn-out.

Nam spondeus tractus quidam dicitur, id est sonus, qui fundebatur circa aures sacrificantum. Vnde et hi, qui tibias canebant in sacris gentilium, spondiales nominabantur.

For the spondee is called a certain “tractus,” that is, a sound, which was poured forth around the ears of those sacrificing. Whence also those who played the tibiae (pipes) in the rites of the gentiles were named “spondiales.”

[3] Trochaeus vero ab eo dictus est, quod celerem conversionem faciat cantilenae, et quasi rota velociter currat in metris. TROCHOS enim Graece rota dicitur.

[3] The trochee, indeed, is so called from this: that it makes a swift conversion of the cantilena, and, as though a wheel, it runs swiftly through the meters. For TROCHOS in Greek is called “wheel”.

[4] Iambus dictus est eo, quod IAMBOZEIN Graeci detrahere dixerunt. Huiusmodi enim carmine omnes invectiones vel detractiones inplere poetae sunt soliti. Dictum autem nomen ab eo, quod veluti venenum quodammodo maledicti aut livoris infundat.

[4] The iamb is said to be so named because the Greeks said IAMBOZEIN means “to detract.” For in song of this kind poets were accustomed to compose every sort of invective or detraction. And the name is said to come from the fact that it, as it were, infuses a kind of poison of malediction or of envy.

[5] Tribrachys qui et chorius appellatur, dictus tribrachys, quia sit ex tribus brevibus.

[5] The tribrachys, which is also called the chorius, is called “tribrachys” because it is made up of three short syllables.

[6] Molossus dictus a saltatione Molossorum, quam exercuerunt armati.

[6] Molossus is called from the saltation of the Molossians, which they practiced while armed.

[7] Anapaestus. [Appellatur quia remissionibus et ludis hic pes magis dicatus est.]

[7] Anapaest. [It is so called because this foot is more especially dedicated to relaxations and games.]

[8] Dactylus a digito dictus, quod a longiori modo inchoans in duos desinit breves. Sic et iste pes iuncturam unam habet longam et duas breves. Vnde et manus oppansa palma dicitur, et pendentes digiti dactili.

[8] The Dactyl is named from the digit (finger), because, beginning with a longer measure, it ends in two short. Thus too this foot has one long and two short junctions. Whence also the hand, when spread out, is called a palm, and the hanging fingers, dactyls.

[9] Amphibrachys, quod in utraque parte brevem habeat, longam in medio interiacentem. BRACHUS enim brevis dicitur.

[9] Amphibrachys, because it has a short on each side, with a long interposed in the middle. BRACHUS indeed is called “short.”

[10] Amphimacrus, quod duae hinc inde longae habent in medio inclusam brevem. MAKROS enim longus dicitur.

[10] Amphimacrus, because two longs on either side have a short enclosed in the middle. For MAKROS is called “long.”

[11] Bacchius appellatus est eo, quod eo pede Bacchia, id est Liberi sacra celebrabantur.

[11] It is called Bacchius for this reason: because with that foot the Bacchia, that is, the rites of Liber, were celebrated.

[12] Antibacchius vel Palimbacchius dictus quia iteratus a Bacchio est.

[12] The Antibacchius, or Palimbacchius, is so called because it is iterated from the Bacchius.

[13] Proceleumaticus, quod sit ad celeuma canentium aptus.

[13] Proceleusmatic, because it is apt for the celeusma of those singing.

[14] Dispondeus autem et ditrochaeus et diiambus dicti quod geminis constant iambis, spondeis vel trochaeis.

[14] The dispondee, the ditrochee, and the diiamb, moreover, are so called because they consist of twin iambs, spondees, or trochees.

[15] Antispastus, quod sit ex contrariis syllabis, ex brevi et longa, ex longa et brevi.

[15] Antispastus, because it is from contrary syllables, from a short and a long, from a long and a short.

[16] Choriambus vero, quia ex hoc pede conpositum carmen choris aptissimum sit.

[16] The choriamb, indeed, because a song composed with this foot is most apt for choruses.

[17] Ionici sane propter numerorum inaequalem sonum dicti. Habent enim binas longas syllabas binasque correptas.

[17] Ionics indeed are so called on account of the unequal sound of the numbers. For they have two long syllables and two short.

[18] Paeones dicti ab inventore. [Constant enim ipsi ex una longa et tribus brevibus, quae longa iuxta nomina eorum variatim est constituta.]

[18] Paeons are called after the inventor. [For they consist of one long and three short syllables, the long being variously positioned according to their names.]

[19] Epitriti vocati quod semper tres longas habeant syllabas et unam brevem.

[19] Epitrites are so called because they always have three long syllables and one short.

[20] Syzygiae autem sunt pentasyllabi et hexasyllabi pedes; et dictae apud Graecos SUZUGIAI quasi quaedam declinationes. Sed hi non sunt pedes, sed appellantur pentasyllabi et hexasyllabi, quia ultra quinque et sex syllabas non procedunt. Vnde non oportet in carmine has syllabas quodlibet excedere nomen, ut "Carthaginiensium" "Hierosolymitanorum" et "Constantinopolitanorum"

[20] Syzygies, moreover, are pentasyllabic and hexasyllabic feet; and among the Greeks they are called SUZUGIAI, as a kind of declensions. But these are not feet, rather they are called pentasyllabic and hexasyllabic because they do not proceed beyond five and six syllables. Whence in poetry it is not proper that any name exceed these syllables, such as "of the Carthaginians," "of the Jerusalemites," and "of the Constantinopolitans."

[21] Accidunt unicuique pedi arsis et thesis, id est elevatio et positio vocis. Neque enim iter pedes dirigere poterunt, nisi alterna vice leventur et ponantur, ut "arma’: "ar’ elevatio est, "ma’ positio. In his duobus per divisionem pedes legitimi colliguntur.

[21] To each foot there occur arsis and thesis, that is, the elevation and the position of the voice. For the feet will not be able to direct their course, unless in alternate turn they are lifted and set down, as "arma’: "ar’ is the elevation, "ma’ the position. In these two, through division, legitimate feet are collected.

Aequa divisio est quotiens arsis et thesis aequali temporum divisione caeduntur.

Equal division is whenever the arsis and the thesis are marked off by an equal division of time.

[22] Dupla, quotiens ex his unum alterum duplo vincit. Sescupla vero est, quotiens unum alterum sescuplo superat. In simpla enim eius parte unus plus invenitur: in dupla unus minus habetur.

[22] The duple, whenever of these one outdoes the other by a double. The sescuple, indeed, is whenever one surpasses the other by a sescuple. For in its simple part one more is found; in the duple one less is had.

Sescum enim dimidium dicitur. Triplum est, quando maior pars ter continet totum minus, id est tria et unum. Epitritum est, quando minus continetur a niaiore, (et) eius tertia pars.

Sescum, for a half is so called. The triple is when the greater contains the whole lesser three times, that is, three and one. The epitrite is when the lesser is contained by the greater and its third part.

Caeduntur vero pedum membra vel per aequalitatem vel per duplum vel per sescuplum vel per triplum vel per epitritum.

The members of the feet are indeed divided either by equality or by duple or by sescuple or by triple or by epitrite.

[23] Partimus ergo in aequa hos:

[23] We therefore divide these into equal parts:

[24] Item dupla partimus hos pedes:

[24] Likewise we divide these feet into doubles:

[25] [∨nus ∨ero est tantum qui tripla partitione di∨iditur, quae est maxima atque ideo minimis metris adest.]

[25] [Only one, indeed, is divided by a triple partition, which is the greatest, and therefore is present in the smallest meters.]

Amphibrachys, ∨ | – ∨

Amphibrach, ∨ | – ∨

[26] Sescupli autem sunt hi:

[26] But the sescuples are these:

[27] Restant, quos epitrita partitione di∨idimus:

[27] There remain those whom we divide by an epitritic partition:

Epitritus primus, ∨ – | – –
Epitritus secundus, – ∨ | – –
Epitritus tertius, – – | ∨ –
Epitritus quartus, – – | – ∨

First Epitritus, ∨ – | – –
Second Epitritus, – ∨ | – –
Third Epitritus, – – | ∨ –
Fourth Epitritus, – – | – ∨

Sunt igitur aequi [quidem] decem, dupli vero sex, triplus unus, sescupli septem, epitriti quattuor. Vnus vero tantum est qui tripla partitione dividitur, quae est maxima atque ideo minimis metris adest.

Thus there are ten equal [indeed], six double, one triple, seven sesquialter, four epitritic. Only one, however, is divided by a triple partition, which is the greatest and therefore is present in the smallest meters.

[28] Numerus autem syllabarum in pedibus a duabus usque ad sex protenditur; ulterius enim non procedit, quia usque ad sex syllabas tenduntur pedes. Tempora in pedibus sunt, ut quanta unusquisque pes habeat. Resolutio est pedum, quando pro una longa duae breves ponuntur, aut pro duabus longis quattuor breves, ut (Virg.

[28] The number of syllables in feet is extended from two up to six; for it does not proceed further, because feet are stretched to six syllables. The times in feet are, namely how many each foot has. Resolution of feet is when in place of one long two shorts are set, or in place of two longs four shorts, as (Virg.

Aen. 2,17):

Aeneid 2,17):

Sectaque intexunt abiete costas.

And they weave the ribs with sawn fir.

"Abiete’ nunc resolutio est spondei in proceleumatico, in qua resolutione semper synaloepham sequitur Vergilius.

"Abiete’ now is the resolution of a spondee in the proceleusmatic, in which resolution Vergil always follows synaloepha.

[29] Ex una autem longa duae breves fiunt: ex duabus autem brevibus longa numquam fit. Findi enim solida possunt, solidari scissa non possunt. Figura est, cuius nota syllabae agnoscuntur.

[29] From one long, however, two shorts are made; but from two shorts a long is never made. For solid things can be split; split things cannot be solidified. It is a figure, by whose mark syllables are recognized.

Vbi enim circuli partem inferiorem bis positam aspicis, pyrrhichius est, V V; ubi I geminam iacentem, spondeus, – –. Nam nota brevis inferior semicirculus est; nota longa I iacens est.

Where, indeed, you see the lower part of a circle set down twice, it is a pyrrhic, V V; where a doubled lying I, a spondee, – –. For the short sign is the lower semicircle; the long sign is the lying I.

[30] Metra in pedibus accidunt, ut a trochaeo trochaicum, a dactylo dactylicum, a iambo iambicum, de quibus paulo post dicendum est.

[30] Meters arise from feet, as from a trochee the trochaic, from a dactyl the dactylic, from an iamb the iambic, about which we must speak a little later.

XVIII. DE ACCENTIBVS.

18. ON ACCENTS.

[1] Accentus, qui Graece prosodia dicitur [ex Graeco nomen accepit]. Nam Graece PROS, Latine "ad" ODE Graece, Latine "cantus’ est. Hoc enim nomen de verbo ad verbum expressum est. Latini autem habent et alia nomina.

[1] Accent, which in Greek is called prosody [it took its name from Greek]. For PROS in Greek, in Latin is "to"; ODE in Greek, in Latin is "song." For this name has been rendered word for word. The Latins, however, have also other names.

Nam accentus et tonos et tenores dicunt, quia ibi sonus crescit et desinit.

For they call accents both tones and tenors, because there the sound grows and ceases.

[2] Accentus autem dictus, quod iuxta cantum sit, sicut adverbium quia iuxta verbum est. Acutus accentus dictus, quod acuat et erigat syllabam, gravis, quod deprimat et deponat. Est enim contrarius acuto.

[2] But it is called “accent,” because it is next to song (cantus), just as “adverb,” because it is next to the verb. The acute accent is so called because it sharpens and raises a syllable; the grave, because it depresses and sets it down. For it is contrary to the acute.

Circumflexus, quia de acuto et gravi constat. Incipiens enim ab acuto in gravem desinit, atque ita dum ascendit et descendit, circumflexus efficitur. Acutus autem et circumflexus similes sunt.

The circumflex, because it consists of the acute and the grave. For beginning from the acute it ends in the grave, and thus, while it ascends and descends, a circumflex is effected. But the acute and the circumflex are similar.

[3] Nam uterque levant syllabam. Gravis contrarius videtur ambobus. Nam semper deprimit syllabas, cum illi levent, ut (Lucan. 1,15):

[3] For each raises the syllable. The grave seems contrary to both. For it always depresses syllables, while they lift them, as (Lucan. 1,15):

Vnde venit Titan, et nox ibi sidera condit.

Whence Titan comes, and there night hides the stars.

"Vnde’ hic gravis est. Minus enim sonat quam acutus et circumflexus.

"Vnde" here is grave. For it sounds less than the acute and the circumflex.

[4] Monosyllaba autem pars orationis si naturaliter brevis est, ut "vir" aut positione longa, ut "ars" acutum accentum habebit. Si vero naturaliter longa, ut "res" circumflexum. Disyllaba pars orationis si priorem naturaliter longam habet et ultimam brevem, circumflectitur, ut "Musa’; aliter acuitur.

[4] A monosyllabic part of speech, if it is naturally short, as "vir", or long by position, as "ars", will have an acute accent. But if it is naturally long, as "res", a circumflex. A disyllabic part of speech, if it has the first syllable naturally long and the last short, is circumflexed, as "Musa’; otherwise it is given an acute.

Trisyllaba pars orationis si mediam brevem habet, ut "tibia" tunc primam acuimus. Si vero naturaliter longam habet secundam et ultimam brevem, ut "Metellus" tunc mediam circumflectimus.

For a trisyllabic word, if it has the middle syllable short, as "tibia," then we put the acute on the first. But if it has the second naturally long and the last short, as "Metellus," then we circumflex the middle.

[5] Tetrasyllaba autem [pars orationis] et pentasyllaba ratione trisyllabarum retinentur. Gravis accentus cum uno accentu poni potest in dictione una, cum utrisque numquam; ut ["Catullus". In conposita dictione unus accentus est.

[5] The tetrasyllabic [part of speech] and the pentasyllabic are governed by the rule for trisyllables. The grave accent can be set with one accent in a single word, with both never; as ["Catullus". In a compound word there is one accent.

[6] Accentus autem reperti sunt vel propter distinctionem, ut (Virg. Aen. 8,83): "Viridique in litore conspicitur sus" ne dicas "ursus’; vel propter pronuntiationem, ne dicas "meta’ breviter et non producta (A) "meta’; vel discernendae ambiguitatis causa, ut "ergo" Nam cum producitur "go" causam significat; cum corripitur, coniunctionem.

[6] Accents, moreover, have been discovered either for the sake of distinction, as (Virg. Aen. 8,83): "Viridique in litore conspicitur sus" lest you say "ursus"; or for the sake of pronunciation, lest you say "meta" briefly and not lengthened (A) "meta"; or for the purpose of discerning ambiguity, as "ergo." For when the "go" is lengthened, it signifies a cause; when it is shortened, a conjunction.

XIX. DE FIGVRIS ACCENTVVM.

19. ON THE FIGURES OF ACCENTS.

[1] Figurae accentuum decem sunt, quae a grammaticis pro verborum distinctionibus adponuntur. OXEIA, id est acutus accentus, linea a sinistra parte in dexteram partem sursum ducta, fit ita:

[1] The figures of accents are ten, which are added by grammarians for the distinctions of words. OXEIA, that is, the acute accent, a line drawn upward from the left side to the right side, is made thus:

[2] BAREIA, id est gravis, linea a summo sinistrae in dexteram deposita, fit ita:

[2] BAREIA, that is the grave, a line set down from the top of the left to the right, is made thus:

[3] ` PERISPOMENE, id est circumflexus, linea de acuto et gravi facta, exprimitur ita:

[3] ` PERISPOMENE, that is, the circumflex, a line made from the acute and the grave, is expressed thus:

[4] ^ MACHROS, id est longa, virgula, iacens est ita:

[4] ^ MACHROS, that is long, the virgule lies thus:

[5] – BRACHUS, id est brevis, pars est circuli inferior, iacens ita:

[5] – BRACHUS, that is, short, is the lower part of a circle, lying thus:

[6] U UFEN, id est coniunctio, quia duo verba conectit, subiecta virgula versui circumflexa, fit ita: ?.

[6] U UFEN, that is, a conjunction, because it connects two words, with a virgule placed beneath, circumflexed around the verse, is formed thus: ?.

[7] Diastole, id est distinctio, quae e contrario separat, dextra pars circuli supposita versui, fit ita: 7.

[7] Diastole, that is distinction, which conversely separates, the right part of a circle placed beneath the line, is formed thus: 7.

[8] Apostrophus pars item circuli dextra et ad summam litteram adposita, fit ita: ), qua nota deesse ostenditur in sermone ultima vocalis, ut "tribunal" pro "tribunale"

[8] Apostrophe, likewise the right part of a circle and set at the top of the letter, is formed thus: ), by which mark it is shown that the final vowel is lacking in speech, as "tribunal" for "tribunale"

[9] DASEIA, quod interpretatur aspiratio, id est ubi H littera poni debet, tali figura notatur: ?.

[9] DASEIA, which is interpreted as aspiration, that is, where the letter H ought to be set, is marked by such a figure: ?.

[10] PSILE, quod interpretatur siccitas, sive purum, id est, ubi H littera esse non debet, tali nota ostenditur: ?.

[10] PSILE, which is interpreted as “dryness,” or “pure,” that is, where the letter H ought not to be, is shown by such a mark: ?.

[11] Quorum duorum accentuum figuram Latini ex ipsa littera aspirationis fecerunt. Vnde si coniungas has, fecisti eandem aspirationis notam. Rursus si medium eius apicem scindis, DASEIAN et PSILEN facis.

[11] Of these two accents the Latins made the figure from the very letter of aspiration. Whence, if you join these, you have made the same mark of aspiration. Again, if you split its apex in the middle, you make DASEIAN and PSILEN.

XX. DE POSITVRIS.

20. ON POSITURES.

[1] Positura est figura ad distinguendos sensus per cola et commata et periodos, quae dum ordine suo adponitur, sensum nobis lectionis ostendit. Dictae autem positurae vel quia punctis positis adnotantur, vel quia ibi vox pro intervallo distinctionis deponitur. Has Graeci THESEIS vocant, Latini posituras.

[1] A positura is a figure for distinguishing senses by means of cola, commata, and periods, which, when it is applied in its proper order, shows us the sense of the reading. They are called positurae either because they are annotated with points having been set, or because the voice is laid down there for the interval of the distinction. The Greeks call these THESEIS, the Latins positurae.

[2] Prima positura subdistinctio dicitur; eadem et comma. Media distinctio sequens est; ipsa et cola. Vltima distinctio, quae totam sententiam cludit, ipsa est periodus; cuius, ut diximus, partes sunt cola et comma; quarum diversitas punctis diverso loco positis demonstratur.

[2] The first positura is called the subdistinction; the same is also the comma. The following is the middle distinction; this itself is also the cola. The last distinction, which encloses the whole sentence, is the period; whose parts, as we have said, are the cola and the comma; the diversity of which is shown by points set in different positions.

[3] Vbi enim initio pronuntiationis necdum plena pars sensui est, et tamen respirare oportet, fit comma, id est particula sensus, punctusque ad imam litteram ponitur; et vocatur subdistinctio, ab eo quod punctum subtus, id est ad imam litteram, accipit.

[3] For when, at the beginning of delivery, the part is not yet complete for the sense, and yet one ought to breathe, a comma is made, that is, a small particle of the sense, and the point is placed at the lowest part of the letter; and it is called subdistinction, from the fact that it receives the point below, that is, at the foot of the letter.

[4] Vbi autem in sequentibus iam sententia sensum praestat, sed adhuc aliquid superest de sententiae plenitudine, fit cola, mediamque litteram puncto notamus; et mediam distinctionem vocamus, quia punctum ad mediam litteram ponimus.

[4] But where in the following the sentence already affords sense, yet something still remains of the sentence’s fullness, a colon is made, and we mark with a point at the middle of the letter; and we call it the middle distinction, because we place the point at the middle of the letter.

[5] Vbi vero iam per gradus pronuntiando plenam sententiae clausulam facimus, fit periodus, punctumque ad caput litterae ponimus; et vocatur distinctio, id est disiunctio, quia integram separavit sententiam.

[5] Where, indeed, now by steps in pronouncing we make the full close of the sentence, a period is made, and the point is placed at the head of the letter; and it is called distinction, that is disjunction, because it has separated an entire sentence.

[6] Hoc quidem apud oratores. Ceterum apud poetas ubi in versu post duos pedes syllaba remanet, comma est, quia ibi post scansionem praecisio verbi facta est. Vbi vero post duos pedes de parte orationis nihil superest, colon est.

[6] Such is the case with orators. But among poets, where in a verse after two feet a syllable remains, it is a comma, because there, after the scansion, a cutting-off of the word has been made. Where, however, after two feet nothing of the discourse remains, it is a colon.

Totus autem versus periodus est.

But the whole verse is a period.

XXI. DE NOTIS SENTENTIARVM.

21. ON THE SIGNS OF SENTENCES.

[1] Praeterea quaedam scripturarum notae apud celeberrimos auctores fuerunt, quasque antiqui ad distinctionem scripturarum carminibus et historiis adposuerunt. Nota est figura propria in litterae modum posita, ad demonstrandam unamquamque verbi sententiarumque ac versuum rationem. Notae autem versibus adponuntur numero viginti et sex, quae sunt nominibus infra scriptis.

[1] Moreover, there were certain notes of writings among the most celebrated authors, which the ancients appended to poems and histories for the distinction of writings. A nota is a proper figure, set in the manner of a letter, for demonstrating the sense of each word, sentence, and verse. The notas, moreover, are appended to verses in the number twenty-six, whose names are written below.

[2] * Asteriscus adponitur in his quae omissa sunt, ut inlucescant per eam notam, quae deesse videntur. Stella enim ASTER dicitur Graeco sermone, a quo asteriscus est dirivatus.

[2] * An asterisk is appended in those places where things have been omitted, so that, through that mark, the things which seem to be lacking may become clear. For “star” is called ASTER in the Greek tongue, from which “asterisk” is derived.

[3] – Obolus, id est, virgula iacens, adponitur in verbis vel sententiis superflue iteratis, sive in his locis, ubi lectio aliqua falsitate notata est, ut quasi sagitta iugulet supervacua atque falsa confodiat. Sagitta enim Graece OBELOS dicitur.

[3] – Obolus, that is, a lying little stroke, is appended to words or sentences superfluously repeated, or in those places where a reading has been marked with some falsity, so that, as if an arrow, it may throttle the superfluous and pierce the false. For "arrow" in Greek is called OBELOS.

[4] ? Obolus superne adpunctus ponitur in hisdem, de quibus dubitatur utrum tolli debeant necne adponi. [Falsitate notatum est.]

[4] ? An obelus dotted above is placed upon the same [passages], about which it is doubted whether they ought to be removed or not to be added. [It has been marked by falsity.]

[5] ÷ Lemniscus, id est, virgula inter geminos punctos iacens, opponitur in his locis, quae sacrae Scripturae interpretes eodem sensu, sed diversis sermonibus transtulerunt.

[5] ÷ Lemniscus, that is, a little rod lying between twin points, is applied in those places which the interpreters of Sacred Scripture have translated with the same sense, but in different diction.

[6] ? Antigraphus cum puncto adponitur, ubi in translationibus diversus sensus habetur.

[6] ? The antigraph is set with a point, where in the translations a different sense is found.

[7] * – Asteriscus cum obolo. Hanc proprie Aristarchus utebatur in his versibus, qui non suo loco positi erant.

[7] * – Asterisk with obelus. This Aristarchus specifically used in those verses which were not set in their proper place.

[8] ? Paragraphus ponitur ad separandas res a rebus, quae in conexu concurrunt, quemadmodum in Catalogo loca a locis et [regiones a] regionibus, in Agone praemia a praemiis, certamina a diversis certaminibus separantur.

[8] ? A paragraph is set to separate things from things, which in a nexus run together, just as in a Catalogue places from places and [regions from] regions, in the Agon prizes from prizes, contests from different contests are separated.

[9] ? Positura est figura paragrapho contraria et ideo sic formata, quia sicut ille principia notat, ita ista fines a principiis separat.

[9] ? Positura is a figure contrary to the paragraphus, and therefore is formed thus, because just as that one marks beginnings, so this one separates the ends from the beginnings.

[10] Ú Cryphia, circuli pars inferior cum puncto, ponitur in his locis, ubi quaestio dura et obscura aperiri vel solvi non potuit.

[10] Ú Cryphia, the lower part of a circle with a point, is placed in those places where a hard and obscure question could not be opened or solved.

[11] ) Antisimma ponitur ad eos versus quorum ordo permutandus est. Sic et in antiquis auctoribus positum invenitur.

[11] ) The Antisimma is placed at those verses whose order is to be permuted. Thus also it is found positioned in the ancient authors.

[12] ·) Antisimma cum puncto ponitur in his locis ubi in eodem sensu duplices versus sunt, et dubitatur qui potius eligendus sit.

[12] ·) Antisimma with a point is placed in those places where, in the same sense, there are duplicate verses, and it is doubted which should rather be chosen.

[13] > Diple. Hanc scriptores nostri adponunt in libris ecclesiasticorum virorum ad separanda vel [ad] demonstranda testimonia sanctarum Scripturarum.

[13] > Diple. Our writers append this in the books of ecclesiastical men to separate or [to] demonstrate testimonies of the holy Scriptures.

[14] ·> Diple PERI STICHON. Hanc pri[m]us Leogoras Syracusanus posuit Homericis versibus ad separationem Olympi a caelo.

[14] ·> Diple PERI STICHON. This Leogoras the Syracusan first set in the Homeric verses for the separation of Olympus from heaven.

[15] >: Diple PERIESTIGMENE, id est cum geminis punctis. Hanc antiqui in his opponebant quae Zenodotus Ephesius non recte adiecerat, aut detraxerat, aut permutaverat. In his et nostri ea usi sunt.

[15] >: Diple PERIESTIGMENE, that is, with twin points. The ancients set this against those things which Zenodotus of Ephesus had not rightly added, or had subtracted, or had altered. In these cases our own also used it.

[16] à Diple OBOLISMENE interponitur ad separandos in comoediis vel tragoediis periodos.

[16] à Diple OBOLISMENE is interposed to separate the periods in comedies or tragedies.

[17] -2 Aversa OBOLISMENE, quotiens strophe et antistrophus infertur.

[17] -2 Reversed OBOLISMENE, whenever strophe and antistrophe are introduced.

[18] ß Adversa cum obolo ad ea ponitur quae ad aliquid respiciunt, ut (Virg. Aen. 10,88):

[18] ß The Adversa with obelus is placed at those things which have regard to something, as (Virg. Aen. 10,88):

Nosne tibi Phrygiae res vertere fundo
conamur? nos? an miseros qui Troas Achivis
obiecit?

Is it we who for you are trying to overturn Phrygian affairs from the foundation
we? or he who to the Achaeans the wretched Trojans
has thrown?

[19] Diple superne obolata ponitur ad conditiones locorum ac temporum personarumque mutatas.

[19] A diple obelized above is set for altered conditions of places, times, and persons.

[20] Diple rectaet adversa superne obolata ponitur finita loco suo monade, significatque similem sequentem quoque esse.

[20] The straight and the reversed diple, marked above with an obelos, is set when the monad has been completed in its own place, and it signifies that the following is likewise similar.

[21] Ceraunium ponitur quotiens multi versus inprobantur, nec per singulos obolatur; CHERAUNION enim fulmen dicitur.

[21] The ceraunium is placed whenever many verses are disapproved, nor is it obelized for each singly; for CHERAUNION is called a thunderbolt.

[22] C(h)risimon. Haec sola ex voluntate uniuscuiusque ad aliquid notandum ponitur.

[22] C(h)risimon. This alone is placed, by the will of each individual, for marking something.

[23] (P) Phi et Ro, id est FRONTIS. Haec, ubi aliquid obscuritatis est, ob sollicitudinem ponitur.

[23] (P) Phi and Rho, that is OF THE FOREHEAD. This, where there is some obscurity, is placed on account of solicitude.

[24] ? Anchora superior ponitur ubi aliqua res magna omnino est.

[24] ? The upper anchor is placed where some matter is altogether very great.

[25] ? Anchora inferior, ubi aliquid vilissime vel inconvenientius denuntiatum est.

[25] ? The lower anchor, where something has been denoted most vilely or more inconveniently.

[26] P Coronis nota tantum in fine libri adponitur.

[26] P The coronis mark is placed only at the end of a book.

[27] | Alogus nota [quae] ad mendas adhibetur.

[27] | The Alogus mark [which] is applied to errors.

[28] Fiunt et aliae notulae librorum pro agnoscendis his quae per extremitates paginarum exponuntur, ut, ubi lector in liminare huiusmodi signum invenerit, ad textum recurrens eiusdem sermonis vel versiculi sciat esse expositionem, cuius similem superiacentem notam invenerit.

[28] Other little notes of books are also made for recognizing those things which are expounded along the extremities of the pages, so that, when the reader has found at the threshold a sign of this kind, by returning to the text he may know there is an exposition of the same discourse or versicle, of which he has found a similar superjacent note.

XXII. DE NOTIS VVLGARIBVS.

22. ON COMMON NOTES.

[1] Vulgares notas Ennius primus mille et centum invenit. Notarum usus erat ut, quidquid pro con[ten]tione aut [in] iudiciis diceretur, librarii scriberent conplures simul astantes, divisis inter se partibus, quot quisque verba et quo ordine exciperet. Romae primus Tullius Tiro Ciceronis libertus commentus est notas, sed tantum praepositionum.

[1] Ennius first invented one thousand one hundred vulgar notes. The use of notes was this: whatever might be said for contention or in judgments, the scribes, several standing by at once, would write, having divided the parts among themselves—how many words each should take down, and in what order. At Rome, Tullius Tiro, Cicero’s freedman, was the first to devise notes, but only of prepositions.

[2] Post eum Vipsanius, Philargius, et Aquila libertus Maecenatis alius alias addiderunt. Deinde Seneca, contractu omnium digestoque et aucto numero, opus efficit in quinque milia. Notae autem dictae eo, quod verba vel syllabas praefixis characteribus notent et ad notitiam legentium revocent; quas qui didicerunt proprie iam notarii appellantur.

[2] After him Vipsanius, Philargius, and Aquila, the freedman of Maecenas, each added others of his own. Then Seneca, with all contracted and arranged and the number increased, brought the work to five thousand. They are called notes because they mark words or syllables with prefixed characters and recall them to the notice of readers; those who have learned them are now properly called notaries.

XXIII. DE NOTIS IVRIDICIS.

23. ON JURIDICAL NOTES.

[1] Quaedam autem litterae in libris iuris verborum suorum notae sunt, quo scriptio celeris breviorque fiat. Scribebatur enim verbi gratia per B et F "bonum factum" per S et C "senatus consultum" per R et P "respublica" per P et R "populus Romanus" per D et T "dumtaxat" per supinam W litteram "mulier" per P secundum naturam "pupillus" per P verso capite "pupilla" per unum K "caput" per duo KK iuncta "calumniae causa" per I et E "iudex esto" per D et M "dolum malum"

[1] Moreover certain letters in books of law are notes of their words, so that writing may be swifter and shorter. For example, it used to be written by B and F "good deed," by S and C "decree of the senate," by R and P "the republic," by P and R "the Roman People," by D and T "only," by the W letter lying supine "woman," by a P in its natural position "ward (boy)," by a P with its head turned "ward (girl)," by a single K "head," by two K’s joined "for the sake of calumny," by I and E "let there be a judge," by D and M "malicious fraud."

[2] Cuius generis plurimas consimiles notas in libris antiquis invenimus. Has iuris notas novicii imperatores a codicibus legum abolendas sanxerunt, quia multos per haec callidi ingenio ignorantes decipiebant, atque ita iusserunt scribendas in legibus litteras, ut nullos errores, nullas ambages afferant, sed sequenda et vitanda aperte demonstrarent.

[2] Of this kind we have found very many similar notes in ancient books. The new emperors sanctioned that these juridical notes be abolished from the law-codices, because through these the crafty, by their ingenuity, were deceiving many who were ignorant; and thus they ordered that letters be written in the laws so as to bring no errors, no ambiguities, but to demonstrate openly what is to be followed and what to be avoided.

XXIV. DE NOTIS MILITARIBVS.

24. ON MILITARY NOTATIONS.

[1] In breviculis quoque, quibus militum nomina continebantur, propria nota erat apud veteres, qua inspiceretur quanti ex militibus superessent quantique in bello cecidissent. T Tau nota in capite versiculi posita superstitem designabat; ? Theta vero ad uniuscuiusque defuncti nomen apponebatur. Vnde et habet per medium telum, id est mortis signum.

[1] In the brevicles too, in which the names of the soldiers were contained, there was among the ancients a proper mark, by which it might be inspected how many of the soldiers survived and how many fell in war. The Tau mark T, placed at the head of the little line, designated a survivor; ? Theta, however, was appended to the name of each deceased. Whence it also has a spear through the middle, that is, a sign of death.

De qua Persius ait (4,13):

About which Persius says (4,13):

Et potis est nigrum vitio praefigere theta.

And he is able to prefix the black theta to a vice.

[2] Cum autem inperitiam significare vellent, Labda littera usi sunt, sicut mortem significabant, cum ponebant Theta ad caput. In stipendiorum quoque largitione propriae erant notae.

[2] When they wished to signify inexperience, they used the letter Labda, just as they signified death when they placed Theta at the head. In the largition of stipends too, there were proper marks.

XXV. DE NOTIS LITTERARVM.

25. ON THE NOTES OF LETTERS.

[1] Notas etiam litterarum inter se veteres faciebant, ut quidquid occulte invicem per scripturas significare vellent, mutue scriberent. Testis est Brutus, qui in his litteris ea quae acturus erat notabat, ignorantibus aliis quid sibi vellent haec litterae.

[1] The ancients also made letter-notes among themselves, so that whatever they wished to signify secretly to one another through writings, they would mutually write. Brutus is witness, who in these letters marked the things he was about to do, while the others were ignorant what these letters meant.

[2] Caesar quoque Augustus ad filium, "quoniam" inquit, "innumerabilia accidunt assidue quae scribi alterutro oporteat et esse secreta, habeamus inter nos notas si vis tales ut, cum aliquid notis scribendum erit, pro unaquaque littera scribamus sequentem hoc modo, pro a b pro b c et deinceps eadem ratione ceteras; pro z autem littera redeundum erit ad duplex a a" Quidam etiam versis verbis scribunt.

[2] Caesar Augustus also, to his son, "since," he says, "innumerable things happen continually which ought to be written by either of us and to be secret, let us have between us notes, if you wish, such that, when something will have to be written in notes, for each letter we shall write the following one in this way, for a b, for b c, and thereafter by the same rule the rest; but for the letter z it will be necessary to return to a double a a" Some also write words reversed.

XXVI. DE NOTIS DIGITORVM.

26. ON THE SIGNS OF THE FINGERS.

[1] Sunt quaedam et digitorum notae, sunt et oculorum, quibus secum taciti proculque distantes conloquuntur. Sicut mos est militaris, ut quotiens consentit exercitus, quia voce non potest, manu promittat. Alii, quia voce non possunt, gladiorum motu salutant.

[1] There are certain notes/signs of the fingers, and there are also of the eyes, by which, silent and far apart, they converse among themselves. As is the military custom, namely that whenever the army is in accord, because it cannot by voice, it pledges by hand. Others, because they cannot by voice, salute by the movement of swords.

[2] Ennius de quadam inpudica (Naev. Com. 75):

[2] Ennius about a certain impudent woman (Naev. Com. 75):

Quasi in choro pila
ludens da[ta]tim dat sese et communem facit.
Alium tenet, alii adnutat, alibi manus
est occupata, alii pervellit pedem,
alii dat anulum [ex]spectandum, a labris
alium invocat, cum alio cantat; adtamen
aliis dat digito litteras.

As in a chorus, with a ball
playing, pass-by-pass she hands herself around and makes herself common.
She holds one, gives a nod to another; elsewhere her hand
is occupied; another’s foot she tweaks,
to another she gives a ring to be looked at; from her lips
she beckons another; with another she sings; nevertheless
to others she writes letters with her finger.

Et Salomon (Proverb. 6,13): "Annuit oculo, terit pede, digito loquitur"

And Solomon (Proverbs 6,13): "He nods with his eye, he scuffs with his foot, he speaks with his finger"

XXVII. DE ORTHOGRAPHIA.

27. ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

[1] Orthographia Graece, Latine recta scriptura interpretatur. [Orto enim recte, graphia scriptura dicitur.] Haec disciplina docet quemadmodum scribere debeamus. Nam sicut ars tractat de partium declinatione, ita orthographia de scribendi peritia, utputa "ad" cum est praepositio, D litteram; cum est coniunctio, T litteram accipit.

[1] Orthography in Greek, in Latin is interpreted as right/straight writing. [For ortho means “rightly,” and graphia is called “writing.”] This discipline teaches how we ought to write. For just as art treats of the declension of parts, so orthography of the skill of writing, for example, "ad" when it is a preposition takes the letter D; when it is a conjunction, it takes the letter T.

[2] "Haud" quando adverbium est negandi, D littera terminatur et aspiratur in capite; quando autem coniunctio [disiunctiva] est, per T litteram sine aspiratione scribitur.

[2] "Haud," when it is an adverb of negation, ends with the letter D and is aspirated at the beginning; but when it is a disjunctive conjunction, it is written with the letter T without aspiration.

[3] "Apud’ praepositio per D scribitur, sicut "ad patrem" quoniam veteres saepe "apud" pro "ad’ usi sunt [duabus ex eis mediis litteris subtractis].

[3] "Apud’ as a preposition is written with D, just as "ad patrem," since the ancients often used "apud" in place of "ad’ [with two of its middle letters subtracted].

[4] Interdum autem aliae litterae in locum aliarum litterarum rite ponuntur. B et P litteris quaedam cognatio est. Nam pro "Burro’ dicimus "Pyrrhum" C et G [litterae] quandam cognationem habent.

[4] Sometimes, moreover, other letters are rightly put in place of other letters. Between the letters B and P there is a certain kinship. For instead of "Burro’ we say "Pyrrhum" The letters C and G [letters] have a certain kinship.

Nam dum dicimus "centum" [et] "trecentos" postea dicimus "quadringentos" G ponentes pro C. C et Q similiter cognatio est. Nam "huiusce’ per C, "cuiusque’ per Q scribimus. "Cum’ autem praepositio per C scribenda est; si autem adverbium fuerit, per Q. Dicimus enim "quum lego" "Deus’ per E solam: "daemon’ per AE dipthonga est notandus.

For while we say "centum" [and] "trecentos", afterward we say "quadringentos", setting G in place of C. C and Q likewise have a cognation. For we write "huiusce’ with C, "cuiusque’ with Q. However, "cum’ as a preposition is to be written with C; but if it is an adverb, with Q. For we say "quum lego" "Deus’ with E alone; "daemon’ is to be noted with the diphthong AE.

[5] "Equus" quod est animal, per E solam scribendum. "Aequus" quod est iustus, per AE dipthonga scribendum. "Exsul’ addito S debet scribi, quia exsul dicitur qui extra solum est.

[5] "Equus," which is the animal, must be written with E alone. "Aequus," which is just, must be written with the diphthong AE. "Exsul’ must be written with an added S, because exsul is said of one who is outside the soil (land).

"Exultat’ melius sine S littera scribitur. Nam cum ipsa X ex C et S constat, quomodo, cum in ea sit, rursus ei additur alia?

"Exultat’ is better written without the letter S. For since X itself consists of C and S, how, since it is in it, is another added to it again?

[6] "Aequor’ per dipthonga scribendum, quia ab aqua est nomen factum.

[6] "Aequor’ should be written with the diphthong, because the name is made from aqua.

[7] "Forsitan’ per N scribendum in fine, quia integrum eius est "si forte tandem"

[7] "‘Forsitan’ should be written with N at the end, because its full form is "if by chance at length"

[8] "Fedus" quod est deformis, per E solam scribendum [est]: "foedus’ quod est pactum, cum O et E dipthonga scribendum.

[8] "Fedus," which is "deformed," should be written with E alone [is]: "foedus," which is "pact," should be written with the diphthong O and E.

[9] "Formosus’ sine N scribitur, quia a forma vocatur. [Sive etiam a formo, id est calido; calor enim sanguinis efficit pulcritudinem.] "Gnatus" quod est filius, per G scribendum, quia facit generatus.

[9] "Formosus’ is written without N, because it is derived from forma (“form”). [Or also from formus, that is, warm; for the heat of the blood produces pulchritude.] "Gnatus," which is "son," must be written with G, because it yields "generated."

[10] H, quae aspirationis littera est, in Latino tantum vocalibus iungitur: ut "honor" "homo" "humus’ [humilitas]. Aspiratur autem et consonantibus, sed in Graecis et Hebraeis nominibus. "Heus’ autem et "heu’ interiectiones per H scribendae.

[10] H, which is the letter of aspiration, in Latin is joined only to vowels: as "honor" "homo" "humus’ [humility]. But aspiration is also applied to consonants, yet in Greek and Hebrew names. "Heus’ moreover, and "heu’, the interjections, are to be written with H.

[11] I littera inter duas vocales constituta, bis scribi quidam existimabant, ut in "Troia’ et "Maia" Hoc ratio non permittit. Numquam enim tres vocales in una syllaba scribuntur. Sed I littera inter duas vocales constituta pro duplici habetur.

[11] The letter I, when placed between two vowels, some thought should be written twice, as in "Troia’ and "Maia" Reason does not permit this. For never are three vowels written in one syllable. But the letter I, when placed between two vowels, is held as double.

[12] "Id" pronomen neutri generis per D scribitur, ab eo quod est "is, ea, id" quia facit "idem" Quod si verbum est tertiae personae, per T notabitur, ab eo quod est "eo, is, it" [quia facit] "itur"

[12] "Id," a pronoun of the neuter gender, is written with D, from that which is "is, ea, id," because it forms "idem." But if it is a verb of the third person, it will be marked with T, from that which is "eo, is, it" [because it forms] "itur."

[13] K litteram antiqui praeponebant quotiens A sequebatur, ut " kaput" "kanna" "kalamus" Nunc autem "Karthago’ et "kalendae’ per eandem tantum scribuntur. Omnia autem Graeca nomina qualicumque sequente vocali per K sunt scribenda.

[13] The ancients prefixed the letter K whenever A followed, as " kaput" "kanna" "kalamus" Now, however, "Karthago’ and "kalendae’ are written only with that same letter. But all Greek names, with whatever vowel following, are to be written with K.

[14] "Laetus’ per dipthonga scribitur, quia laetitia a latitudine vocata est, cuius e contrario est tristitia, quae angustiam facit. L autem litteram interdum pro D littera utimur, ut "latum" pro "datum’ et "calamitatem" pro "cadamitatem’; a cadendo enim nomen sumpsit calamitas.

[14] "Laetus’ is written with a diphthong, because laetitia is named from latitude, whose opposite is tristitia, which makes narrowness. But the letter L we sometimes use in place of the letter D, as "latum" for "datum’ and "calamitatem" for "cadamitatem’; for calamity took its name from cadere, to fall.

[15] "Maxumus’ an "maximus" et si qua similia sunt qualiter scribi debeant quaesitum est. Varro tradit Caesarem per I eiusmodi verba enuntiare solitum esse et scribere. Inde propter auctoritatem tanti viri consuetudinem factam, ut "maximus" "optimus" "pessimus’ scribatur.

[15] "Maxumus’ or "maximus," and how any similar forms ought to be written, has been inquired. Varro relates that Caesar was accustomed to enunciate and to write words of this sort with I. Thence, on account of the authority of so great a man, a consuetude was established, that "maximus" "optimus" "pessimus’ be written.

[16] "Malo’ per unum L scribendum, quia est "magis volo" "Malle’ per duo LL, quia est "magis velle" "Nolo’ quoque per unum L; [et] "nolle’ per duo. "Nolo’ enim "nevolo’ est; "nolle" "nevelle"

[16] "Malo" is to be written with one L, because it is "I more wish"; "malle" with two LL, because it is "to more wish"; "nolo" likewise with one L; [and] "nolle" with two. For "nolo" is "ne volo"—"I do not will"; "nolle" "ne velle"—"to not will".

[17] "Os’ si vultum aut ossum significat per O solam scribendum est; si personam, H praeponenda est.

[17] "Os," if it signifies the face or a bone, must be written with O alone; if it signifies a person, an H must be prefixed.

[18] "Ora’ finium per O; "hora’ dierum per H scribendum. "Onus" si de onere venit, O sola scribendum; si de honore, cum H aspiratione.

[18] "Ora’ of boundaries with O; "hora’ of days is to be written with H. "Onus," if it comes from onus (a burden), is to be written with O alone; if from honor, with aspirated H.

[19] "Praepositio’ et "praeterea’ per dipthonga scribendum. "Pene’ vero, quod est coniunctio, per E; "poena" quod est supplicium, per OE.

[19] "Praepositio’ and "praeterea’ must be written with a diphthong. "Pene’ however, which is a conjunction, with E; "poena" which is punishment, with OE.

[20] Q littera tunc recte ponitur, cum illi statim U littera sequitur, et alia quaelibet una pluresve vocales iunguntur, ita ut una syllaba fiat. Cetera per C scribuntur.

[20] The letter Q is rightly placed when the letter U immediately follows it, and any other one or more vowels are joined, so that one syllable is made. The rest are written with C.

[21] "Quae" pronomen cum A scribendum; "que’ coniunctio sine A. "Quid’ per D litteram scribitur, cum pronomen est; per T, cum verbum: cuius positio est prima "queo, quis, quit" et in conpositione "nequeo, nequis, nequit"

[21] "Quae" the pronoun is to be written with A; "que’ the conjunction without A. "Quid’ is written with the letter D, when it is a pronoun; with T, when it is a verb: whose first position is "queo, quis, quit" and in composition "nequeo, nequis, nequit"

[22] "Quod" quando pronomen est, per D [est] scribendum; quando numerus, per T, quia "totidem’ per T scribitur. "Quotidie’ per Q scribendum, non per C, ut sit "quot diebus"

[22] "Quod," when it is a pronoun, must be written with D; when it is a numeral, with T, because "totidem" is written with T. "Quotidie" must be written with Q, not with C, as it is "quot diebus."

[23] R littera communionem habet cum S littera. Itaque apud anticos "honos" "labos" "arbos’ dicebatur, nunc "honor" "labor" "arbor"

[23] The letter R has a commonality with the letter S. And so among the ancients "honos" "labos" "arbos’ was said, now "honor" "labor" "arbor"

[24] "Sat’ per T scribi oportet, quia integrum eius facit "satis" "Sed’ per D oportet scribi. Apud anticos enim sed "sedum’ dicebatur; nos finales duas litteras abscidimus.

[24] "Sat" ought to be written with T, because its complete form is "satis". "Sed" ought to be written with D. For among the ancients "sed" was said as "sedum"; we have cut off the final two letters.

[25] "Tamtus" sicut et "quamtus’ in medio M habebant. "Quam’ enim et "tam" unde et "quamtitas" "quamtus" "tamtus"

[25] "Tamtus" just as also "quamtus’ had an M in the middle. "Quam’ indeed and "tam", whence also "quamtitas" "quamtus" "tamtus"

[26] "Vae’ interiectio cum A scribendum; "ve’ coniunctio sine A.

[26] "Vae" an interjection must be written with A; "ve" a conjunction without A.

[27] Xps, quia Graecum est, per X scribendum. Ita et "Xrisma"

[27] Xps, because it is Greek, is to be written with X. So too "Xrisma"

[28] Y et Z litteris sola Graeca nomina scribuntur. Nam cum "iustitia’ sonum Z littera exprimat, tamen, quia Latinum est, per T scribendum est. Sic "militia" "malitia" "nequitia" et cetera similia.

[28] The letters Y and Z are used only to write Greek names. For although the letter Z expresses the sound of "iustitia’, nevertheless, because it is Latin, it must be written with T. Thus "militia" "malitia" "nequitia" and other similar [words].

[29] In dubiis quoque verbis consuetudo veterum erat ut, cum eadem littera alium intellectum correpta, alium producta haberet, longae syllabae apicem adponebant; utputa "populus’ arborem significaret, an hominum multitudinem, apice distinguebatur. Sic et ubi litterae consonantes geminabantur, sicilicum superponebant, ut "cella" "serra" "asseres" Veteres enim non duplicabant litteras, sed supra sicilicos adponebant; qua nota admonebatur lector geminandam esse litteram.

[29] Also in doubtful words the custom of the ancients was that, when the same letter had one sense when clipped, another when lengthened, they would add an apex to the long syllable; for example, whether "populus’ signified the tree, or the multitude of men, it was distinguished by the apex. Likewise, where consonant letters were doubled, they would place a sicilicus above, as "cella" "serra" "asseres". For the ancients did not duplicate letters, but placed sicilici above; by which mark the reader was admonished that the letter was to be doubled.

XXVIII. DE ANALOGIA.

28. ON ANALOGY.

[1] Analogia Graece, Latine similium conparatio sive proportio nominatur. Cuius haec vis est ut, quod dubium est, ad aliquid simile, quod non est dubium, referatur, et incerta certis probentur. Octo autem modis conparatio analogiae colligitur: id est qualitate, conparatione, genere, numero, figura, casu, extremitatibus similium syllabarum, et similitudine temporum.

[1] Analogy, in Greek; in Latin it is named the comparison of similars or proportion. Its force is this: that what is doubtful is referred to something similar which is not doubtful, and the uncertain are proved by the certain. Moreover, the comparison of analogy is gathered in eight modes: that is, by quality, comparison, gender, number, figure, case, the extremities of similar syllables, and the similarity of tenses.

[2] Si quid de iis unum defuerit, iam non est analogia, id est similitudo, sed est anomalia, id est extra regulam, ut "lepus’ et "lupus" Totum convenit, sed dissentiunt casu; facit enim "lupi" "leporis" Nam regulariter est, dum quaeris utrum "trames’ masculinum sit an femininum, similis est illi in omni declinatione "limes" et erit masculinum.

[2] If any one of these is lacking, it is no longer analogy, that is, similitude, but anomaly, that is, outside the rule, as "lepus’ and "lupus" The whole agrees, but they disagree in case; for it makes "lupi" "leporis" For, regularly, when you ask whether "trames’ is masculine or feminine, "limes" is similar to it in every declension, and it will be masculine.

[3] Item "funis’ si incerti generis esse credis, similis est illi "panis’ in declinatione, et erit masculinum. Item ex conparatione positivorum, ut si dicas "doctus" "magnus’: positivi sunt et sui similes. Fit et per diminutionem, utputa "funem’ masculinum esse funiculus ostendit, sicut "marmor’ neutri esse generis marmusculum indicat.

[3] Likewise, if you believe "funis’ to be of uncertain gender, it is similar to "panis’ in declension, and will be masculine. Likewise from the comparison of positives, as if you say "doctus" "magnus’: they are positives and similar to themselves. It is also done through diminution, for instance the diminutive funiculus shows that "funem’ is masculine, just as the diminutive marmusculum indicates that "marmor’ is of neuter gender.

[4] Nam quod genus in principalitate est, id esse solet in diminutione. Sed hoc non semper, ut "pistrinum" "pistrilla" Sed quia scire debemus ex positione [id est primitivo] declinationem, ex diminutione genus colligere.

[4] For the gender that is in the principal form is wont to be the same in the diminutive. But not always, as "pistrinum" "pistrilla." But since we ought to know the declension from the positive [that is, the primitive], we should gather the gender from the diminutive.

XXIX. DE ETYMOLOGIA.

29. ON ETYMOLOGY.

[1] Etymologia est origo vocabulorum, cum vis verbi vel nominis per interpretationem colligitur. Hanc Aristoteles SUMBOLON, Cicero adnotationem nominavit, quia nomina et verba rerum nota facit exemplo posito; utputa "flumen" quia fluendo crevit, a fluendo dictum.

[1] Etymology is the origin of words, when the force (i.e., meaning) of a word or of a name is gathered through interpretation. Aristotle named this SUMBOLON, Cicero annotation, because, with an example set forth, it makes the names and the words of things known; for instance, "river," because by flowing it grows, is said from "flowing."

[2] Cuius cognitio saepe usum necessarium habet in interpretatione sua. Nam dum videris unde ortum est nomen, citius vim eius intellegis. Omnis enim rei inspectio etymologia cognita planior est.

[2] The cognition of which often has a necessary use in its own interpretation. For when you have seen whence a name has arisen, you more quickly understand its force. For the inspection of any thing, the etymology being known, is more plain.

Non autem omnia nomina a veteribus secundum naturam inposita sunt, sed quaedam et secundum placitum, sicut et nos servis et possessionibus interdum secundum quod placet nostrae voluntati nomina damus.

Not, however, were all names imposed by the ancients according to nature, but certain ones also according to convention, just as we too sometimes give names to slaves and to possessions according to what pleases our will.

[3] Hinc est quod omnium nominum etymologiae non reperiuntur, quia quaedam non secundum qualitatem, qua genita sunt, sed iuxta arbitrium humanae voluntatis vocabula acceperunt. Sunt autem etymologiae nominum aut ex causa datae, ut "reges’ a [regendo et] recte agendo, aut ex origine, ut "homo" quia sit ex humo, aut ex contrariis ut a lavando "lutum" dum lutum non sit mundum, et "lucus" quia umbra opacus parum luceat.

[3] Hence it is that the etymologies of all names are not found, because certain ones received their appellations not according to the quality in which they were begotten, but according to the arbitrament of human will. But the etymologies of names are either given from the cause, as "kings’" from [ruling and] acting rightly, or from the origin, as "man" because he is from soil (humus), or from contraries, as from washing "mud," since mud is not clean, and "grove" because, obscure with shadow, it shines little.

[4] Quaedam etiam facta sunt ex nominum derivatione, ut a prudentia "prudens’; quaedam etiam ex vocibus, ut a garrulitate "garrulus’; quaedam ex Graeca etymologia orta et declinata sunt in Latinum, ut "silva" "domus"

[4] Some things also have been made from the derivation of names, as from prudence "prudent"; some also from voices, as from garrulity "garrulous"; some have arisen from Greek etymology and been declined into Latin, such as "silva" "domus"

[5] Alia quoque ex nominibus locorum, urbium, [vel] fluminum traxerunt vocabula. Multa etiam ex diversarum gentium sermone vocantur. Vnde et origo eorum vix cernitur.

[5] Other [words] also have derived their appellations from the names of places, cities, [or] rivers. Many too are named from the speech of diverse nations. Whence also their origin is scarcely discerned.

Sunt enim pleraque barbara nomina et incognita Latinis et Graecis.

For indeed most are barbarian names and unknown to Latins and Greeks.

XXX. DE GLOSSIS.

30. ON GLOSSES.

[1] Glossa Graeca interpretatione linguae sortitur nomen. Hanc philosophi adverb[i]um dicunt, quia vocem illam, de cuius requiritur, uno et singulari verbo designat. Quid enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat, ut: "conticescere est a tacere"

[1] Gloss takes its name from the Greek interpretation of the tongue. Philosophers call it an adverb, because it designates that word, about which inquiry is made, by one single word. For what that is, set in one word, it declares, as: "to fall silent is to be silent".

[2] Item (Virg. Aen. 10,314):

[2] Likewise (Virgil, Aeneid 10, 314):

Latus haurit apertum.

He drains the open flank.

"haurit, percutit" Item cum "terminum’ dicimus "finem" aut "populatas’ interpretamur esse "vastatas" et omnino cum unius verbi rem uno verbo manifestamus.

"he draws, he strikes" Likewise when we say "boundary’ we mean "end" or we interpret "ravaged’ to be "devastated" and altogether when we manifest the matter of a single word by a single word.

XXXI. DE DIFFERENTIIS.

31. ON DIFFERENCES.

[1] Differentia est species definitionis, quam scriptores artium de eodem et de altero nominant. Haec enim duo quadam inter se communione confusa, coniecta differentia secernuntur, per quam quid sit utrumque cognoscitur; ut cum quaeritur quid inter regem sit et tyrannum, adiecta differentia, quid uterque sit definitur, ut "rex modestus et temperatus, tyrannus vero crudelis" Inter haec enim duo differentia cum posita fuerit, quid sit utrumque cognoscitur. Sic et cetera.

[1] Difference is a species of definition, which writers of the arts name “of the same and of the other.” For these two, confused with one another by a certain communion, are separated when the difference is applied, through which what each is is known; as, when it is asked what is between a king and a tyrant, with the difference added, what each is is defined, as “a king is modest and temperate, but a tyrant is cruel Inter these two indeed, when the difference has been set forth, what each is is known. So too with the rest.

XXXII. DE BARBARISMO.

32. ON BARBARISM.

[1] Barbarismus est verbum corrupta littera vel sono enuntiatum. Littera, ut "floriet" dum "florebit’ dicere oporteat; sono, si pro media syllaba prima producatur, ut "latebrae" "tenebrae" Appellatus autem barbarismus a barbaris gentibus, dum latinae orationis integritatem nescirent. Vnaquaeque enim gens facta Romanorum cum opibus suis vitia quoque et verborum et morum Romam transmisit.

[1] Barbarism is a word enunciated with a corrupted letter or sound. In the letter, as "floriet" when one ought to say "florebit’; in the sound, if instead of the middle syllable the first is lengthened, as "latebrae" "tenebrae" But "barbarism" is so called from barbarian peoples, since they did not know the integrity of Latin speech. For each nation, once it had become of the Romans, transmitted to Rome along with its resources its vices also, both of words and of mores.

[2] Inter barbarismum autem et barbarolexim hoc interest, quod barbarismus in verbo latino fit, dum corrumpitur; quando autem barbara verba latinis eloquiis inferuntur, barbarolexis dicitur. Item quando in prosa vitium fit sermonis, barbarismus vocatur; quando in metro, metaplasmus dicitur.

[2] Between barbarism and barbarolexis this is the difference: barbarism happens in a Latin word, when it is corrupted; but when barbarian words are brought into Latin elocutions, it is called barbarolexis. Likewise, when in prose a fault of discourse occurs, it is called barbarism; when in meter, it is called metaplasm.

[3] Barbarismus autem fit scripto et pronuntiatione. Scripto quattuor modis: si quis in verbo litteram vel syllabam adiciat, mutet, transmutet, vel minuat. Pronuntiatione autem fit in temporibus, tonis, aspirationibus et reliquis quae sequuntur.

[3] But barbarism comes about in writing and in pronunciation. In writing, in four modes: if someone in a word should add a letter or syllable, change it, transpose it, or diminish it. In pronunciation, however, it occurs in quantities, tones, aspirations, and the remaining things which follow.

[4] Per tempora quippe fit barbarismus, si pro longa syllaba brevis ponatur, aut pro brevi longa. Per tonos, si accentus in alia syllaba commutetur. Per aspirationem, si adiciatur H littera ubi non debet, aut detrahatur ubi esse oportet.

[4] By times indeed a barbarism is made, if in place of a long syllable a short is set, or in place of a short a long. By tones, if the accent is changed onto another syllable. By aspiration, if the letter H is added where it ought not, or is removed where it ought to be.

[5] Per hiatum, quotiens in pronuntiatione scinditur versus antequam conpleatur, sive quotiens vocalis vocalem sequitur, ut "Musae Aonides" Fit barbarismus et per motacismos, [iotacismos] et labdacismos.

[5] By hiatus, whenever in pronunciation the verse is split before it is completed, or whenever a vowel follows a vowel, as "Musae Aonides." A barbarism is also produced by motacisms, [iotacisms] and labdacisms.

[6] Motacismus est, quotiens M litteram vocalis sequitur, ut "bonum aurum" "iustum amicum’; sed hoc vitium aut suspensione M litterae, aut detractione vitamus.

[6] Motacism is, whenever the letter M is followed by a vowel, as "bonum aurum" "iustum amicum’; but we avoid this vice either by the suspension of the letter M, or by detraction.

[7] Iotacismus est, quotiens in iota littera duplicatur sonus, ut "Troia" "Maia’; ubi earum litterarum adeo exilis erit pronuntiatio, ut unum iota, non duo sonare videantur.

[7] Iotacism is, whenever in the iota letter the sound is doubled, as "Troia" "Maia’; where the pronunciation of those letters will be so thin that one iota, not two, seems to sound.

[8] Labdacismus est, si pro una L duo pronuntientur, ut Afri faciunt, sicut "colloquium" pro "conloquium’; vel quotiens unam L exilius, duo largius proferimus. Quod contra est; nam unum largius, duo exilius proferre debemus.

[8] Lambdacism is, if in place of a single L two are pronounced, as the Africans do, as “colloquium” for “conloquium’; or whenever we pronounce one L more thinly, two more broadly. Which is the reverse; for we ought to pronounce one more broadly, two more thinly.

[9] Conlisio est, quotiens novissimae syllabae finis in alterius principio est, ut "matertera"

[9] Collision is, whenever the end of the last syllable is in the beginning of another, as "matertera"

XXXIII. DE SOLOECISMIS.

33. ON SOLECISMS.

[1] Soloecismus est plurimorum verborum inter se inconveniens conpositio, sicut barbarismus unius verbi corruptio. Verba enim non recta lege coniuncta soloecismus est, ut si quis dicat "inter nobis" pro "inter nos" aut "date veniam sceleratorum" pro "sceleratis"

[1] A solecism is an incongruent composition of several words among themselves, just as a barbarism is a corruption of a single word. For words not joined by the correct rule are a solecism, as if someone should say "inter nobis" for "inter nos" or "date veniam sceleratorum" for "sceleratis"

[2] Dictus autem soloecismus a Cilicibus, qui ex urbe Solo(e), quae nunc Pompeiopolis appellatur, profecti, cum apud alios commorantes suam et illorum linguam vitiose inconsequenterque confunderent, soloecismo nomen dederunt. Vnde et similiter loquentes soloecismos facere dicuntur.

[2] Solecism is said to be named from the Cilicians, who, having set out from the city Solo(e), which is now called Pompeiopolis, when staying among others were viciously and inconsequently confounding their own language and that of those others, and thus gave the name to solecism. Whence also those speaking similarly are said to make solecisms.

[3] Soloecismus autem apud poetas schema dicitur, quotiens in versu necessitate metri factus invenitur. Cum autem non invenitur necessitas, permanet soloecismi culpa.

[3] A solecism, however, among poets is called a schema, whenever in a verse it is found to have been made by the necessity of meter. But when the necessity is not found, the fault of the solecism remains.

[4] Soloecismus fit duobus modis: aut per partes orationis, aut per accidentia. Per partes orationis, si alteram partem pro altera ponamus, utputa si praepositiones adverbiis adplicemus. Per accidentia fit, id est per ea quae acciduntur partibus, utputa per qualitates, per genera et numeros, figuras et casus.

[4] A solecism comes about in two ways: either by the parts of speech, or by the accidents. By the parts of speech, if we put one part in place of another, for instance, if we apply prepositions to adverbs. It is by the accidents, that is, by those things that are incidental to the parts, for instance, by qualities, by genders and numbers, by figures and cases.

Per ista igitur omnia fiunt soloecismi, sicut Donatus exposuit.

Through all these things, therefore, solecisms come about, as Donatus has expounded.

[5] Fiunt praeterea ex plurimis modis. Nam Lucilius centum genera soloecismorum dixit, quos omnes vitare potius quam sequi debet qui regulam recte loquendi tenere studet.

[5] Moreover, they arise in very many ways. For Lucilius said there are one hundred kinds of solecisms, all of which ought rather to be avoided than followed by one who strives to hold the rule of speaking rightly.

XXXIV. DE VITIIS.

34. ON FAULTS.

[1] Vitia apud Grammaticos illa dicuntur, quae in eloquio cavere debemus. Sunt autem haec: barbarismus, soloecismus, acyrologia, cacenphaton, et reliqua.

[1] Among the Grammarians those things are called faults which we must beware in speech. These are: barbarism, solecism, acyrology, cacenphaton, and the rest.

[2] Barbarismus est corruptio verbi unius. [Vt si tertiam syllabam quis producat in "ignoscere"]

[2] Barbarism is the corruption of a single word. [As, if someone were to lengthen the third syllable in "ignoscere"]

[3] Soloecismus conpositio vitiosa verborum. [Vt si aliquis dicat "inter hominibus" pro "inter homines"]

[3] Solecism is a faulty composition of words. [As if someone should say "inter hominibus" for "inter homines"]

[4] Acyrologia non propria dictio, ut (Lucan 2,15):

[4] Acyrology, not-proper diction, as (Lucan 2,15):

Liceat sperare timenti.

Let it be permitted to the fearful to hope.

Proprium est autem timenti formidare, non sperare; et (Virg. Aen. 5,287):

However, it is proper for one who fears to dread, not to hope; and (Virg. Aen. 5,287):

Gramineo in campo.

On a grassy field.

Proprium est "graminosum’ dicere campum, non "gramineum" Cacemphaton dictio obscena vel inconposite sonans.

It is proper to say "graminosum’ of a field, not "gramineum". Cacemphaton: a diction sounding obscene or ill-composed.

[5] Obscena, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,579):

[5] Obscenities, as (Vergil, Aeneid 1.579):

His animum arrecti dictis.

Heartened in spirit by these words.

Inconposita, ut (Virg. Aen. 2,27):

Uncomposed, as (Virg. Aen. 2,27):

Iuvat ire et Dorica castra.

It pleases to go and to the Dorian camps.

Mala enim fuit conpositio ab ea syllaba incipere, qua superior finierat.

For it was a bad composition to begin from that syllable with which the previous had finished.

[6] Pleonasmos adiectio unius verbi supervacua, ut (Virg. Georg. 2,1):

[6] Pleonasms, the superfluous addition of a single word, as (Virg. Georg. 2,1):

Hactenus arvorum cultus et sidera caeli.

So far the cultivation of fields and the stars of the sky.

Neque enim alibi nisi in caelo sunt sidera.

For indeed the stars are nowhere except in the sky.

[7] Perissologia adiectio plurimorum verborum supervacua, ut (Deuteron. 33,6): "vivat Ruben et non moriatur’: dum non sit aliud vivere quam non mori.

[7] Perissology is the superfluous addition of a great many words, as (Deuteron. 33,6): "let Reuben live and not die": since to live is nothing other than not to die.

[8] Macrologia longiloquium, res non necessarias conprehendens, ut (Liv. frag. 64 M.): "Legati non inpetrata pace retro unde venerant domum reversi sunt"

[8] Macrology, longiloquy, comprehending unnecessary things, as (Liv. frag. 64 M.): "The envoys, peace not having been obtained, returned back home from where they had come."

[9] Tautologia, idemloquium ut (Virg. Aen. 1,546):

[9] Tautology, same-saying, as (Virg. Aen. 1,546):

Si fata virum servant, si vescitur aura
aetherea, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris.

If the fates preserve the man, if he feeds on aetherial air,
and does not yet lie beneath the cruel shades.

Totum enim quod repetitur una res est, sed crebro sermone adnuntiata.

For the whole that is repeated is one thing, but announced by frequent discourse.

[10] Eclipsis est defectus dictionis, in quo necessaria verba desunt, ut (Virg. Aen. 4,138):

[10] Ellipsis is a defect of diction, in which the necessary words are lacking, as (Virg. Aen. 4,138):

Cui pharetra ex auro:

To whom a quiver of gold:

deest enim "erat"

for "was" is lacking

[11] Tapinosis est humilitas, statum rei magnae dictis infirmans, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,118):

[11] Tapinosis is a humility, infirming by words the status of a great thing, as (Virg. Aen. 1,118):

Apparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto.

Scattered swimmers appear in the vast gulf.

[12] "Gurgitem’ posuit pro "mare" Cacosyntheton, vitiosa conpositio verborum, ut (Virg. Aen. 9,609):

[12] He has put "whirlpool" in place of "sea": Cacosyntheton, a faulty composition of words, as (Virg. Aen. 9,609):

Versaque iuvencum
terga fatigamus hasta.

And the turned backs of the bullocks
we weary with the spear.

[13] Amphibolia, ambigua dictio, quae fit aut per casum accusativum, ut illud responsum Apollinis ad Pyrrhum (Enn. Ann. 179):

[13] Amphiboly, an ambiguous diction, which arises either through the accusative case, as in that response of Apollo to Pyrrhus (Enn. Ann. 179):

Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse.

I say you, Aeacid, the Romans to be able to conquer.

In quo non est certum, quem in ipso versu monstraverit esse victorem.

In which it is not certain whom, in the verse itself, he has shown to be the victor.

[14] Fit et per incertam distinctionem, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,263):

[14] It also happens through uncertain punctuation, as (Virg. Aen. 1,263):

Bellum ingens geret Italia.

He will wage a mighty war in Italy.

Incerta distinctio, utrum "bellum ingens" an "ingens Italia"

Uncertain distinction, whether "vast war" or "vast Italy"

[15] Fit et per commune verbum, ut: "Deprecatur Cato, caiumniatur Cicero, praestolatur Brutus, dedignatur Antonius’; nec ostenditur in hac ambiguitate utrum ipsi alios, an alii ipsos deprecati sunt aut calumniati.

[15] It also happens through a common verb, as: "Cato deprecates, Cicero calumniates, Brutus awaits, Antonius disdains’; nor in this ambiguity is it shown whether they themselves have deprecate or calumniated others, or others have deprecate or calumniated them.

[16] Fit et per homonyma, quo uno nomine multa significantur, ut "acies" et non addas aut ferri, aut oculorum, aut militum.

[16] It also comes about through homonyms, by which under one name many things are signified, as “acies,” and you do not add whether of steel, or of the eyes, or of soldiers.

XXXV. DE METAPLASMIS.

35. ON METAPLASMS.

[1] Metaplasmus Graeca lingua, Latine transformatio dicitur. Qui fit in uno verbo propter metri necessitatem et licentiam poetarum; cuius species istae sunt.

[1] Metaplasm in the Greek tongue, in Latin is called transformation. Which happens in a single word on account of the necessity of meter and the license of poets; whose kinds are these.

[2] Prothesis adpositio in principio verbi, ut ["gnato" pro "nato’ et "tetulit" pro "tulit "]. Epenthesis adpositio in medium, ut (Virg. Aen. 3,409):

[2] Prothesis is an addition at the beginning of a word, as ["gnato" for "nato’ and "tetulit" for "tulit "]. Epenthesis is an addition in the middle, as (Virg. Aen. 3,409):

Maneant in relligione nepotes,

Let the descendants remain in religion,

pro "religione" ["relliquias" pro "reliquias" "induperator" pro "inperator".

for "religione" ["relliquias" for "reliquias" "induperator" for "inperator".

[3] Paragoge adpositio in finem, ut ["admittier" pro "admitti" "magis" pro "mage’ et "potestur" pro "potest". Aphaeresis abscisio de principio, ut "temno" pro "contemno" Syncope abscisio de medio, ut "forsan" pro "forsitan" Apocope abscisio de fine, ut "sat" pro "satis"

[3] Paragoge, an addition at the end, as ["admittier" for "admitti" "magis" for "mage’ and "potestur" for "potest". Aphaeresis, a cutting off from the beginning, as "temno" for "contemno" Syncope, a cutting off from the middle, as "forsan" for "forsitan" Apocope, a cutting off from the end, as "sat" for "satis"

[4] Ectasis, productio contra naturam, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,499): "exercet Diana choros". (Virg.

[4] Ectasis, a prolongation contrary to nature, as (Virg. Aen. 1,499): "Diana exercises the choruses". (Virg.

Aen. 1,2): "Italiam fato" quum "Italiam’ correpte dici debeat. Systole correptio contra naturam, ut (Virg.

Aen. 1,2): "Italy by fate" when "Italy" ought to be said shortened. Systole a correction/shortening against nature, as (Virg.

Aen. 6,773): "urbemque Fidenam" cum prima syllaba produci debet. Vt quum dicimus "Orion’ correpte, dum producte dici oportet.] Diaeresis discissio syllabae in duas, ut (Virg.

Aen. 6,773): "urbemque Fidenam" when the first syllable ought to be lengthened. As when we say "Orion’" short, whereas it ought to be said long.] Diaeresis, a splitting of a syllable into two, as (Virg.

Aen. 9,26): "dives pictai vestis" pro "pictae" (Enn. Ann.

Aen. 9,26): "rich in painted vestment" in place of "pictae" (Enn. Ann.

33): "Albai longai" pro "Albae longae".

33): "Albai longai" for "Albae longae".

[5] Episynaloephe conglutinatio duarum [syllabarum] in unam, ut "Phaethon" pro "Phaëthon" "Neri" pro "Nereï" "aeripedem" pro "aëripedem". Synaloephe conlisio vocalium adiuncta vocalibus, ut (Virg. Aen. 9,1):

[5] Episynaloepha the conglutination of two [syllables] into one, as "Phaethon" for "Phaëthon" "Neri" for "Nereï" "aeripedem" for "aëripedem". Synaloepha a collision of vowels joined to vowels, as (Virg. Aen. 9,1):

Atque ea diversa penitus dum parte geruntur].

And while these things are being carried on in a far different quarter].

[6] Ec(th)lipsis conlisio consonantium cum vocalibus, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,3):

[6] Ec(th)lipsis, a collision of consonants with vowels, as (Virg. Aen. 1,3):

Multum ille et terris igctatus et alto].

Much he tossed both on lands and on the deep].

Antithesis contrapositio litterae pro alia littera, ut ["inpete" pro "impetu’) ["olli" pro "illi". Metathesis transpositio litterae, ut ["Thymbre" pro "Thymber" ["Evandre" pro "Evander".

Antithesis, contraposition of a letter for another letter, as ["inpete" for "impetu’) ["olli" for "illi". Metathesis, transposition of a letter, as ["Thymbre" for "Thymber" ["Evandre" for "Evander".

[7] Inter barbarismum et figuras, hoc est Latinam et perfectam elocutionem, metaplasmum esse, qui in uno sermone fit oratione vitiosus. Item inter soloecismum et schema, id est perfectam sermonum conexionem, figura est, quae fit contextu sermonum oratione vitiosa. Ergo metaplasmi [et] schemata media sunt et discernuntur peritia et inperitia.

[7] Between barbarism and figures, that is Latin and perfect elocution, there is metaplasm, which occurs in a single word, faulty in expression. Likewise, between solecism and schema, that is a perfect connexion of words, there is a figure, which is made in the contexture of words, with the expression faulty. Therefore metaplasms [and] schemata are middle things and are distinguished by expertise and inexperience.

Fiunt autem ad ornatum.

They are, moreover, made for ornament.

XXXVI. DE SCHEMATIBVS.

36. ON SCHEMES.

[1] Schemata ex Graeco in Latinum eloquium figurae interpretantur, quae fiunt in verbis vel sententiis per varias dictionum formas propter eloquii ornamentum. Haec dum multae sint apud Grammaticos, istae inveniuntur.

[1] Schemata, from Greek into Latin speech, are interpreted as figures, which take place in words or in sentences through various forms of diction for the ornament of eloquence. Although these are many among the Grammarians, these are found.

[2] Prolempsis est praesumptio, ubi ea, quae sequi debent, anteponuntur, ut (Virg. Aen. 12,161):

[2] Prolepsis is a presumption, where those things which ought to follow are set before, as (Virg. Aen. 12,161):

Interea reges ingenti mole Latinus.

Meanwhile the kings, in enormous mass, Latinus.

Debuit enim sic dicere: "Interea reges ingenti mole" et statim adicere, quod sequitur: "procedunt castris" deinde dicere: "Latinus" etc.; sed facta est pro ornamento praesumptio rei, et qui sequi debuerunt reges interpositi sunt in septem versibus, et postea additum est: "Procedunt castris" Inde et praesumptio, quia anteposita sunt quae sequi debuerunt.

For he ought to have said thus: "Meanwhile the kings with enormous mass," and immediately to add what follows: "advance from the camp," then to say: "Latinus," etc.; but a presumption of the matter was made for the sake of ornament, and the kings who ought to have followed are interposed within seven verses, and afterward it is added: "They advance from the camp." Hence also a presumption, because things which ought to follow are put before.

[3] Zeugma est clausula, quum plures sensus uno verbo clauduntur, quae fit tribus modis. Nam aut in primo, aut in postremo, aut in medio id verbum ponitur, quod sententias iungit. In primo, ut (Lucil. 139):

[3] Zeugma is a clause, when several senses are enclosed by one word, which is done in three ways. For either at the beginning, or at the end, or in the middle the word is placed which joins the sentences. At the beginning, as (Lucil. 139):

Vertitur oenophoris fundus, sententia nobis.

The estate is turned over to wine‑merchants, our opinion is turned.

In medio [ut] (Enn. Ann. 329):

In the middle [as] (Enn. Ann. 329):

Graecia Sulpicio sorti data, Gallia Cottae.

Greece was given by lot to Sulpicius, Gaul to Cotta.

In postremo, [ut] (Ter. Andr. 68):

In the last place, [as] (Terence, Andria 68):

Namque hoc tempore
obsequium amicos, veritas odium parit.

For indeed at this time
obsequiousness wins friends, truth begets odium.

[4] Hypozeuxis est figura superiori contraria, ubi in singulis sensibus propria unicuique clausula est, ut (Virg. Aen. 10,149):

[4] Hypozeuxis is a figure contrary to the preceding, where in individual senses a proper close belongs to each, as (Virg. Aen. 10,149):

Regem adit et regi memorat nomenque genusque.

He approaches the king and recounts to the king his name and lineage.

[5] Syllempsis est in dissimilibus clausulis aut pluralis dictio singulari verbo finita, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,553):

[5] Syllepsis is either in dissimilar clauses, or a plural diction ended with a singular verb, as (Virg. Aen. 1,553):

Sociis et rege recepto,

With the allies and the king received,

aut singularis dictio plurali verbo expleta, ut (Virg. Ecl. 1,81):

or a singular diction completed by a plural verb, as (Virg. Ecl. 1,81):

Sunt nobis mitia poma,
et pressi copia lactis.

We have mellow apples,
and a copious supply of pressed milk.

Supra enim "sunt’ dixit. Hic debuit dicere: "est et pressi copia lactis"

For above he said "sunt’." Here he ought to have said: "est et pressi copia lactis."

[6] Fit autem Syllempsis non solum per partes orationis, sed et per accidentia partibus. Nam ubi et pro multis unus et pro uno multi ponuntur, Syllempsis est. Pro multis unus, ut est illud (Virg.

[6] But Syllepsis arises not only through the parts of speech, but also through the accidents of the parts. For when both one is put for many and many for one, it is Syllepsis. For one for many, as is that (Virg.

Aen. 2,20):

Aeneid 2,20):

Vterumque armato milite conplent,

And they fill the womb with armed soldiery,

cum non uno, sed multis militibus. Item pro uno multi, ut in Evangelio (Matth. 27,44): "Latrones qui crucifixi erant cum eo improperabant" ubi pro uno uterque inducitur blasphemasse.

with not one, but with many soldiers. Likewise, in place of one, many, as in the Gospel (Matth. 27,44): "The robbers who were crucified with him were reproaching him," where, in place of one, each of the two is introduced as having blasphemed.

[7] Anadiplosis est, quando ab eodem verbo quo prior versus finivit, sequens versus incipit, ut est illud (Virg. Ecl. 8,55):

[7] Anadiplosis is when, with the same word with which the prior verse finished, the following verse begins, as in that passage (Virg. Ecl. 8,55):

Certent et cygnis ululae, sit Tityrus Orpheus,
Orpheus in silvis, inter delphinas Arion.

Let owls contend with swans, let Tityrus be an Orpheus,
Orpheus in the woods, Arion among dolphins.

[8] Anaphora est repetitio eiusdem verbi per principia versuum plurimorum, ut (Virg. Aen. 3,157):

[8] Anaphora is the repetition of the same word at the beginnings of many verses, as (Virgil, Aeneid 3, 157):

Nos te Dardania incensa tuaque arma secuti,
nos tumidum sub te permensi classibus aequor.

We, Dardania burned, and having followed you and your arms,
we, under you, measured out the swollen sea with fleets.

[9] Epanaphora est in uno versu per principia sensuum eiusdem verbi repetitio, ut (Virg. Aen. 7,759):

[9] Epanaphora is, in one verse, the repetition of the same word at the beginnings of the senses, as (Virg. Aen. 7,759):

Te nemus Anguitiae, vitrea te Focinus unda,
te liquidi flevere lacus.

You the grove of Anguitia, you the glassy Focinus wave,
you the limpid lakes wept for.

[10] Epizeuxis in uno sensu congeminatio verbi, ut (Virg. Aen. 4,660):

[10] Epizeuxis is the congemination of a word in a single sense, as (Virgil, Aeneid 4,660):

Sic sic iuvat ire per umbras.

Thus, thus it pleases to go through the shades.

[11] Epanalempsis est sermonis in principio versus positi eiusdem in fine replicatio, ut est illud (Juven. 14,139):

[11] Epanalepsis is the replication at the end of the same wording of the discourse that was set at the beginning of the verse, as is that (Juven. 14,139):

Crescit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia crescit.

The love of money grows as money itself grows.

[12] Paronomasia est in significatione diversa dictio pene ipsa, ut illud: "Abire an obire te convenit?’ id est exulem fieri, an mori.

[12] Paronomasia is, in a different signification, a diction almost the very same, as this: "Is it fitting for you to depart or to decease?" that is, to become an exile, or to die.

[13] Schesis onomaton multitudo nominum coniunctorum quodam ambitu copulata, ut:

[13] Schesis onomaton is a multitude of names, conjoined, coupled within a certain compass, as:

Nubila, nix, grando, procellae, fulmina, venti.

Clouds, snow, hail, squalls, lightnings, winds.

[14] Paromoeon est multitudo verborum ex una littera inchoantium, quale est apud Ennium (Ann. 109):

[14] Paromoeon is a multitude of words beginning from a single letter, such as is in Ennius (Annals 109):

O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tyranne tulisti.

O Titus, you yourself, Tatius, upon yourself such great things, tyrant, you have brought.

Sed bene hoc temperat Virgilius, dum non toto versu utitur hanc figuram, ut Ennius, sed nunc in principio versus tantum, ut est illud (Aen. 1,295):

But Virgil tempers this well, since he does not use this figure in the whole verse, as Ennius does, but now only at the beginning of the verse, as is that (Aen. 1,295):

Saeva sedens super arma;

Savage, seated upon her arms;

nunc autem in fine, ut (Aen. 3,183):

now, however, at the end, as (Aen. 3,183):

Sola mihi tales casus Cassandra canebat.

Only Cassandra sang to me of such misfortunes.

[15] Homoeoptoton est, quum plurima nomina per unum casum denuntiantur, ut illud (Virg. Aen. 12,903):

[15] Homoeoptoton is, when very many names are denoted through one case, as this (Virg. Aen. 12,903):

Sed neque currentem, sed nec cognoscit euntem,
tollentemque manu saxumque inmane moventem.

But he recognizes neither him running, nor even him going,
and as he lifts with his hand and moves an immense stone.

[16] Homoeon teleuton est, quum uno modo verba plurima finiuntur, ut (Cic. Catil. 2,1): "abiit, abcessit, evasit, erupit"

[16] Homoeon teleuton is, when many words are ended in one and the same way, as (Cic. Catil. 2,1): "he went away, he withdrew, he escaped, he burst forth."

[17] Polyptoton est, cum diversis casibus sententia variatur, ut (Pers. 3,84):

[17] Polyptoton is, when a sentence is varied by different cases, as (Pers. 3,84):

Ex nihilo nihilum, ad nihilum nil posse reverti.

From nothing, nothing; to nothing, nothing can revert.

et (Pers. 5,79):

and (Pers. 5,79):

Marci Dama. Papae! Marco spondente, recusas?

Marcus’s Dama. Good heavens! With Marcus as sponsor, do you refuse?

Marcus dixit. Ita est. Adsigna, Marce, tabellas.

Marcus said. So it is. Affix your signature to the tablets, Marcus.

[18] Hirmos est sententia continuatae orationis tenorem suum usque ad ultimum servans, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,159):

[18] A hirmos is a sentence preserving the tenor of a continuous oration all the way to the end, as (Virg. Aen. 1,159):

Est in secessu longo locus, insula portum,

There is, in a long recess, a place, an island makes a harbor,

et reliqua. Hinc enim in longum vadit sensus usque ad illud (Virg. Aen. 1,165):

and the rest. For from here the sense proceeds at length up to that (Virg. Aen. 1,165):

Horrentique atrum nemus inminet umbris.

And a black grove overhangs with bristling shadows.

[19] Polysyntheton est dictio multis concatenata coniunctionibus, ut (Virg. Georg. 3,344):

[19] Polysyndeton is a diction concatenated with many conjunctions, as (Virg. Georg. 3,344):

Tectumque, laremque,
armaque, Amicleumque canem.

And the roof, and the Lar,
and the arms, and the Amyclaean hound.

[20] Dialyton vel asyntheton est figura, quae e contrario sine coniunctionibus solute ac simpliciter effertur, ut: "Venimus, vidimus, placuit"

[20] Dialyton or asyndeton is a figure which, conversely, is expressed without conjunctions, loosely and simply, as: "We came, we saw, it pleased"

[21] Antitheton, ubi contraria contrariis opponuntur et sententiae pulchritudinem reddunt, ut illud (Ovid, Met. 1,19):

[21] Antitheton, where contraries are opposed to contraries and the beauty of the sentence is rendered, as that (Ovid, Met. 1,19):

Frigida pugnabant calidis, humentia siccis:
mollia cum duris: sine pondere habentia pondus.

The cold were fighting with the hot, the humid with the dry:
the soft with the hard: things without weight having weight.

[22] Hypallage, quotienscumque per contrarium verba intelleguntur, ut (Virg. Aen. 3,61):

[22] Hypallage, whenever words are understood through the contrary, as (Vergil, Aeneid 3,61):

Dare classibus Austros,
cum ventis naves demus, non navibus ventos.

to give the South Winds to the fleets,
when we give ships to the winds, not winds to the ships.

XXXVII. DE TROPIS.

37. ON TROPES.

[1] Tropos Graeco nomine Grammatici vocant, qui Latine modi locutionum interpretantur. Fiunt autem a propria significatione ad non propriam similitudinem. Quorum omnium nomina difficillimum est adnotare, sed ex omnibus Donatus tredecim usui tradenda conscripsit.

[1] Tropes the Grammarians call by the Greek name, which in Latin are interpreted as modes of locution. They arise, moreover, from a proper signification to a non-proper similitude. To annotate the names of all of them is most difficult; but from among all, Donatus composed thirteen to be handed down for use.

[2] Metaphora est verbi alicuius usurpata translatio, sicut cum dicimus "fluctuare segetes" "gemmare vites" dum in his rebus fluctus et gemmas non invenimus, in quibus haec verba aliunde transferuntur. Sed hac atque aliae tropicae locutiones ad ea, quae intellegenda sunt, propterea figuratis amictibus obteguntur, ut sensus legentis exerceant, et ne nuda atque in promptu vilescant.

[2] Metaphor is the usurped transference of some word, as when we say "the cornfields fluctuate," "the vines gemmate," although in these things we do not find waves and gems, from which these words are transferred from elsewhere. But this and other tropic locutions, with respect to the things that are to be understood, are for this reason covered with figurative garments, so that they may exercise the sense of the reader, and lest, being naked and in plain view, they grow cheap.

[3] Fiunt autem metaphorae modis quattuor: ab animali ad animate, ut:

[3] Moreover, metaphors are made in four modes: from the animate to the animate, as:

Aligeros conscendit equos.

He mounts winged horses.

Metaphorice loquens miscuit quadrupedi alas avis, et (Virg. Ecl. 6,80):

Speaking metaphorically, he mixed to the quadruped the wings of a bird, and (Virgil, Ecl. 6,80):

Quo cursu deserta petiverit;

By what course he sought the deserts;

miscuit volatili cursum quadrupedis. Ab inanimali ad inanimale, ut Pontum pinus arat, sulcum premit alta carina. Miscuit usum terrae aquis, dum arare et sulcum premere ad terram pertineat, non ad mare.

he mixed to the winged creature the course of the quadruped. From inanimate to inanimate, as the pine plows the deep, the lofty keel presses a furrow. He mixed the usage of land with the waters, since to plow and to press a furrow pertain to the land, not to the sea.

[4] Ab inanimali ad animale, ut "florida iuventus’: miscuit flores inanimales iuventuti, quae animam habet. Ab animali ad inanimale, ut:

[4] From the inanimate to the animate, as “florid youth”: he mixed inanimate flowers with youth, which has a soul. From the animate to the inanimate, as:

Tu, Neptune pater, cui tempora cana crepanti
cincta salo resonant, magnus cui perpete mento
profluit Oceanus, et flumina crinibus errant.

You, father Neptune, whose hoary temples, girt with the crepitating brine, resound,
from whose perpetual chin great Ocean flows forth,
and rivers wander through your hair.

Mentum enim, tempora et crines non ad Oceanum pertinent, sed ad homines.

For the chin, the temples, and the hair do not pertain to Ocean, but to men.

[5] Sic et alia rerum nomina de alio genere in aliud genus decentissime decoris gratia transferuntur, ut oratio perornetur. Metaphora autem aut partis unius est, ut "fluctuare segetes’ (non potes dicere "segetare fluctus’), aut antistropha est, id est reciproca, ut "remigium alarum" Nam et alae navium et alarum remigia dicuntur.

[5] Thus too other names of things are most fittingly transferred from one kind into another for the sake of decor, so that the oration may be thoroughly adorned. A metaphor, moreover, is either of a single part, as "fluctuare segetes’ (you cannot say "segetare fluctus’), or it is an antistrophe, that is, reciprocal, as "remigium alarum." For both "wings of ships" and "oarage of wings" are said.

[6] Catachresis est alienae rei nomen adpositum. Haec et a metaphora differt, quod illa vocabulum habenti largitur, haec, quia non habet proprium, alieno utitur, ut (Virg. Georg. 2,131):

[6] Catachresis is the application of another thing’s name. This also differs from metaphor, in that the latter bestows a vocable upon one that already has (its own), whereas this, because it does not have a proper one, uses another’s, as (Virgil, Georgics 2,131):

Faciemque simillima lauro;

And a face most like the laurel;

et (Virg. Aen. 5,157):

and (Virgil, Aeneid 5.157):

Centaurus; nunc una ambae iunctisque feruntur
frontibus, et longa sulcant vada salsa carina;

Centaurus; now both together as one, with their prows joined, are borne along,
and with the long keel they furrow the salty shallows;

dum facies et frons tantundem animalium et hominum sit. Quod nomen si poeta navi non adposuisset, quod proprium eidem parti diceret, non haberet.

since the face and the front belong equally to animals and to humans. Which name, if the poet had not applied to the ship, saying it was proper to that same part, it would not have.

[7] Metalempsis est tropus a praecedente quod sequitur, ut (Pers. 3,11):

[7] Metalepsis is a trope of taking from the antecedent what follows, as (Pers. 3,11):

Quaeve manus cartae nodosaque venit arundo.

Or what hand comes to the page, and the knotted reed?

Nam per manum verba, per arundinem litterae significatae sunt.

For by the hand words, by the reed letters have been signified.

[8] Metonymia, transnominatio ab alia significatione ad aliam proximitatem translata. Fit autem multis modis. Aut enim per id, quod continet, id, quod continetur, ostendit, ut "theatra plaudunt" "prata mugiunt" dum illic homines plaudunt, hic boves mugiant; aut contra per id, quod continetur, id, quod continet, ut (Virg.

[8] Metonymy, a transnomination transferred from one signification to another by proximity. Moreover, it occurs in many ways. For either by that which contains it shows that which is contained, as "the theaters applaud," "the meadows low," while there human beings applaud, here oxen low; or, on the contrary, by that which is contained, that which contains, as (Virg.

Aen. 2,311):

Aeneid 2,311):

Iam proxinius ardet
Vcalegon;

Already the next-door neighbor burns
Ucalegon;

dum non ille, sed domus eius arderet.

so long as not he himself, but his house was burning.

[9] Item per inventorem id, quod inventum est, ut (Ter. Eun. 732):

[9] Likewise, by the inventor for that which has been invented, as (Ter. Eun. 732):

Sine Cerere et Libero friget Venus;

Without Ceres and Liber, Venus grows cold;

et (Virg. Aen. 9,76):

and (Virgil, Aeneid 9,76):

Conmixtam Vulcanus mittit ad astra favillam.

Vulcan sends the mingled ash to the stars.

Vult enim per Cererem frumenti inventricem intellegere panem, per Liberum inventorem vitis vinum, per Venerem libidinem, per Vulcanum ignem. At contra per inventum inventorem demonstrat, ut (Plaut. frag. 159):

For he wishes to understand bread through Ceres, the inventress of grain; wine through Liber, the inventor of the vine; libido through Venus; fire through Vulcan. But conversely he points out the inventor through the thing invented, as (Plautus, frag. 159):

Vinum precamur,

We pray for wine,

pro Libero, qui vinum apud Graecos invenit.

for Liber, who invented wine among the Greeks.

[10] Item per efficientem, id quod efficitur, sicut "pigrum frigus" quod pigros homines faciat, et "timor pallidus" eo quod pallidos homines reddat. At contra per id quod efficitur, efficiens, ut (Virg. Aen. 5,817):

[10] Likewise, through the efficient (cause), that which is effected, as “sluggish cold” which may make men sluggish, and “pallid fear” because it renders men pale. But conversely, through that which is effected, the efficient (cause), as (Virgil, Aeneid 5,817):

Iungit equos auri genitor spumantiaque addit
frena feris.

The father yokes the horses with gold, and adds
foaming bits to the wild ones.

"Spumantia frena’ dixit, cum utique non ipsa faciant spumas, sed equus, qui ea gerit, spumis conspargat infusis.

He said “foaming bridles,” although indeed the bridles themselves do not make the foam, but the horse that wears them besprinkles them with foam poured in.

[11] Antonomasia est pro nomine, id est vice nominis posita, ut "Maia genitus" pro Mercurio. Qui tropus fit modis tribus: ab animo, ut (Virg. Aen. 5,407):

[11] Antonomasia is in place of a name, that is, set in the stead of a name, as “Maia-begotten” for Mercury. This trope is made in three modes: from character, as (Virg. Aen. 5,407):

Magnanimusque Anchisiades;

And the magnanimous son of Anchises;

a corpore, ut (Virg. Aen. 3,619):

from the body, as (Virg. Aen. 3,619):

Ipse arduus;

He himself, towering;

extrinsecus, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,475):

from the outside, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1,475):

Infelix puer atque inpar congressus Achilli.

Unhappy boy, and unequal, matched against Achilles.

[12] Epitheton, supra nomen. Praeponitur enim proprio nomini, ut "alma Ceres" (Virg. Georg. 1,470):

[12] Epithet, above the name. For it is prefixed to the proper name, as "nourishing Ceres" (Virg. Georg. 1,470):

Obscenique canes, inportunaeque volucres.

Obscene dogs, and inopportune birds.

Inter antonomasiam autem et epitheton hoc differt, quod antonomasia pro vice nominis ponitur, epitheton autem numquam est sine nomine. Quibus duobus tropis vel vituperamus aliquem, vel ostendimus, vel laudamus.

Between antonomasia and the epithet, however, this differs: antonomasia is placed in the stead of the name, but the epithet is never without the name. By these two tropes we either vituperate someone, or show, or praise.

[13] Synecdoche est conceptio, cum a parte totum, vel a toto pars intellegitur. Eo enim et per speciem genus, et per genus species demonstratur [sed species pars est, genus autem totum]. A toto enim pars intellegitur, ut (Virg. Aen.

[13] Synecdoche is a conception, when from a part the whole, or from the whole a part is understood. By it indeed both the genus is demonstrated through the species, and the species through the genus [but species is a part, whereas genus is the whole]. For from the whole a part is understood, as (Virg. Aen.

6,311):

Quam multae glomerantur aves, ubi frigidus annus
pontum fugat.

How many birds are clustered, when the frigid year
drives them from the sea.

Non enim totus annus frigidus est, sed pars anni, id est hiems. At contra a parte totum, ut (Virg. Aen. 2,256):

For not the whole year is cold, but a part of the year, that is, winter. But conversely, from a part the whole, as (Virgil, Aeneid 2,256):

Flammas cum regia puppis
extulerat.

When the royal ship
had raised the flames.

Vbi non solum puppis, sed navis, et non navis, sed qui in ea, et non omnes, sed unus flammas extulit.

Where not only the stern, but the ship; and not the ship, but those in it; and not all, but one, raised the flames.

[14] Onomatopoeia est nomen adfictum ad imitandum sonum vocis confusae, ut "stridor valvarum" "hinnitus equorum" "mugitus boum" "balatus ovium"

[14] Onomatopoeia is a name affixed to imitate the sound of a confused voice, such as "the screech of doors" "the whinny of horses" "the lowing of oxen" "the bleating of sheep"

[15] Periphrasis est circumloquium, dum res una plurimis verbis significatur, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,387):

[15] Periphrasis is a circumlocution, when one thing is signified by very many words, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1,387):

Auras vitales carpit.

He breathes the vital airs.

Significavit enim per copulationem verborum unam rem, hoc est vivit. Hic autem tropus geminus est. Nam aut veritatem splendide producit, aut foeditatem circuitu evitat.

For he signified by a coupling of words one thing, that is, he lives. This trope, however, is twofold. For either it brings forth the truth splendidly, or avoids foulness by a circuit.

Veritatem splendide producit, sicut (Virg. Aen. 4,584; 9,459):

It splendidly brings forth the truth, just as (Virg. Aen. 4,584; 9,459):

Et iam prima novo spargebat lumine terras
Tithoni croceum linquens Aurora cubile.

And now early Aurora was scattering the lands with new light,
leaving Tithonus’s saffron couch.

Vult enim dicere: "iam luciscebat" aut: "dies ortus erat" Foeditatem circuitu devitat, sicut (Virg. Aen. 8,405):

For he means to say: "now it was growing light" or: "day had arisen." He avoids foulness by circumlocution, just as (Virg. Aen. 8,405):

Placitumque petivit
coniugis infusus gremio.

and he sought what was pleasing
poured into his spouse’s lap.

Hoc enim circuitu evitat obscenitatem et decenter ostendit concubitum.

For by this circumlocution he avoids obscenity and decently indicates coitus.

[16] Hyperbaton transcensio, cum verbum aut sententia ordine commutatur. Huius species quinque: anastrophe, hysteron proteron, parenthesis, tmesis, synthesis. Anastrophe est verborum ordo praeposterus, ut: "litora circum" pro "circum litora"

[16] Hyperbaton, a transcension, when a word or a sentence is changed in order. Its species are five: anastrophe, hysteron proteron, parenthesis, tmesis, synthesis. Anastrophe is a preposterous order of words, as: "litora circum" for "circum litora"

[17] Hysteron proteron sententia ordine mutata ut (Virg. Aen. 3,662):

[17] Hysteron proteron: a sentence changed in order, as (Virg. Aen. 3,662):

Postquam altos tetigit fluctus, et ad aequora venit.

After he touched the high billows and came to the level waters.

Antea enim ad aequora venit, et sic tetigit fluctus.

For earlier he came to the sea, and thus he touched the waves.

[18] Parenthesis, ubi interponimus sententiam nostram, qua ex medio remota integer sermo perdurat, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,643):

[18] Parenthesis, wherein we interpose our sentence, which, when removed from the midst, the discourse endures entire, as (Virg. Aen. 1,643):

Aeneas (neque enim patrius consistere mentem
passus amor) rapidum ad naves praemittit Achaten.

Aeneas (for indeed ancestral love did not allow his mind to stand firm)
sends swift Achates ahead to the ships.

[Est enim ordo: Aeneas rapidum praemittit Achaten.] Nam illud in medio parenthesis est.

[For the order is: Aeneas sends swift Achates ahead.] For that in the middle is a parenthesis.

[19] Tmesis est sectio unius nominis per interpositionem verborum, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,412):

[19] Tmesis is the section of a single word by the interposition of words, as (Virg. Aen. 1,412):

Multum nebulae circum dea fudit amictum,

The goddess poured around a great shroud of mist,

pro "circumfudit"

in place of "circumfudit"

[20] Synthesis [est], ubi ex omni parte confusa sunt verba, ut illud (Virg. Aen. 2,348):

[20] Synthesis [is], where words are confused from every part, as that (Virgil, Aen. 2,348):

Iuvenes, fortissima frustra
pectora, si vobis audendi extrema cupido est
certa sequi, quae sit rebus fortuna videtis.
Excessere omnes aditis arisque relictis
dii, quibus inperium hoc steterat; succurritis urbi
incensae; moriamur et in media arma ruamus.

Young men, bravest hearts in vain,
if there is for you a desire of daring the uttermost
fixed to follow, you see what fortune there is for our affairs.
All have withdrawn, the approaches and altars left behind,
the gods by whom this empire had stood; you run to the aid of a city
ablaze; let us die and rush into the midst of arms.

Ordo talis est: "Iuvenes fortissima pectora, frustra succurritis urbi incensae, quia excesserunt dii. Vnde si vobis cupido certa est me sequi audentem extrema, ruamus in media arma et moriamur"

The order is as follows: "Young men, bravest hearts, you bring help to the burning city in vain, because the gods have departed. Therefore, if for you the desire is sure to follow me, daring the utmost, let us rush into the midst of arms and let us die"

[21] Hyperbole est excelsitas fidem excedens ultra quam credendum est, ut (Virg. Aen. 3,423):

[21] Hyperbole is a loftiness exceeding belief beyond what is to be believed, as (Virg. Aen. 3,423):

Sidera verberat unda;

The wave lashes the stars;

et (Virg. Aen. 1,107):

and (Virgil, Aeneid 1, 107):

Terram inter fluctus aperit.

It opens the land amid the waves.

Hoc enim modo ultra fidem aliquid augetur, nec tamen a tramite significandae veritatis erratur, quamvis verba quae indicantur excedant, ut voluntas loquentis, non fallentis appareat. Quo tropo non solum augetur aliquid, sed et niinuitur: augetur, ut "velocior Euro’: minuitur, ut "mollior pluma" "durior saxo" Allegoria est alieniloquium.

For in this way something is increased beyond belief, and yet one does not stray from the path of signifying truth, although the words that are indicated exceed it, so that the will of the speaker may appear, not of one deceiving. By which trope not only is something augmented, but also diminished: it is augmented, as "swifter than the East wind’; it is diminished, as "softer than a feather" "harder than stone" Allegory is alieniloquy.

[22] Aliud enim sonat, et aliud intellegitur, ut (Virg. Aen. 1,184):

[22] For one thing sounds, and another is understood, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1,184):

Tres litore cervos
conspicit errantes.

Three stags on the shore
he beholds, wandering.

Vbi tres duces belli Punici, vel tria bella Punica significantur. Et in Bucolicis (3,71):

Where three leaders of the Punic war, or three Punic wars, are signified. And in the Bucolics (3,71):

Aurea mala decem misi,

I sent ten golden apples,

id est ad Augustum decem eglogas pastorum. Huius tropi plures sunt species, ex quibus eminent septem: ironia, antiphrasis, aenigma, charientismos, paroemia, sarcasmos, astysmos.

that is, to Augustus, ten eclogues of shepherds. Of this trope there are several species, of which seven are prominent: irony, antiphrasis, enigma, charientismos, paroemia, sarcasm, astysmos.

[23] Ironia est sententia per pronuntiationem contrarium habens intellectum. Hoc enim tropo callide aut per accusationem, aut per insultationem aliquid dicitur, ut est illud (Virg. Aen. 1,140):

[23] Irony is a sentence having, through pronunciation, a contrary understanding. For by this trope, something is cleverly said either by accusation or by insultation, as is that (Virg. Aen. 1,140):

Vestras, Eure, domos; illa se iactet in aula
Aeolus, et clauso ventorum carcere regnet.

Your homes, Eurus; let Aeolus vaunt himself in that hall,
and let him reign in the closed prison of the winds.

Et quomodo aula, si carcer est? Solvitur enim pronuntiatione. Nam carcer pronuntiatio est: iactet et aula ironia est; et totun per contrariam pronuntiationem adnuntiatur per ironiae speciem.

And how is it a hall, if it is a prison? For it is solved by the pronunciation. For “prison” pertains to the pronunciation; “let him vaunt” and “hall” are irony; and the whole is announced through contrary pronunciation under the appearance of irony.

quae laudando deridet.

which she derides by lauding.

[24] Antiphrasis est sermo e contrario intellegendus, ut "lucus" quia caret lucem per nimiam nemorun umbram; et "manes" id est mites (quum sint inmites) et modesti, cum sint terribiles et inmanes; et "Parcas’ et "Eumenides" Furiae quod nulli parcant vel benefaciant. Hoc tropo et nani Athlantes et caeci videntes et vulgo Aethiopes argentei appellantur.

[24] Antiphrasis is speech to be understood from the contrary, as “grove” because it lacks light through the excessive shade of the woods; and “manes,” that is “gentle” (though they are ungentle) and “modest,” since they are terrible and inhuman; and the “Parcae” and “Eumenides” are the Furies because they spare no one or do good to anyone. By this trope also dwarfs are called Atlantes, and the blind “seeing,” and commonly Ethiopians “silvery.”

[25] Inter ironiam autem et antiphrasim hoc distat, quod ironia pronuntiatione sola indicat quod intellegi vult, sicut cum dicimus omnia agenti male: "Bonum est, quod facis’; antiphrasis vero non voce pronuntiantis significat contrarium, sed suis tantum verbis, quorum origo contraria est.

[25] Between irony and antiphrasis, however, this differs: irony, by pronunciation alone, indicates what it wishes to be understood, just as when we say to one doing everything badly: "It is good, what you do’; antiphrasis, on the other hand, does not signify the contrary by the speaker’s voice, but by its words alone, whose origin is contrary.

[26] Aenigma est quaestio obscura quae difficile intellegitur, nisi aperiatur, ut est iIlud (Iudic. 14,14): "De comedente exivit cibus, et de forte egressa es dulcedo" significans ex ore leonis favum extractum. Inter allegoriam autem et aenigma hoc interest, quod allegoriae vis gemini est et sub res alias aliud figuraliter indicat; aenigma vero sensus tantum obscurus est, et per quasdam imagines adumbratus.

[26] Enigma is an obscure question which is understood with difficulty unless it be opened, as is that (Iudic. 14,14): "Out of the eater came forth food, and out of the strong came forth sweetness," signifying the honeycomb drawn out from the lion’s mouth. Between allegory and enigma, however, this is the difference: the force of allegory is twin, and beneath other things it indicates something else figuratively; but enigma is only an obscure sense, and is shadowed through certain images.

[27] Charientismos est tropus, quo dura dictu gratius proferuntur, uti cum interrogantibus, "numquid nos quaesierit aliquis?’ respondetur: "Bona Fortuna" Vnde intellegitur neminem nos quaesisse.

[27] Charientismos is a trope by which things hard to say are put forth more graciously, as when to those asking, "Has anyone by any chance sought us?" the reply is: "Good Fortune." Whence it is understood that no one has sought us.

[28] Paroemia est rebus et temporibus adcommodatum proverbium Rebus, ut: "Contra stimulum calces" dum significatur adversis resistendum. Temporibus, ut: "Lupus in fabula" Aiunt enim rustici vocem hominem perdere, si eum lupus prior viderit. Vnde et subito tacenti dicitur istud proverbium: "Lupus in fabula"

[28] A paroemia is a proverb accommodated to things and to times. In respect to things, as: "Kick against the goad," while it is signified that one must resist adversities. In respect to times, as: "The wolf in the tale." For rustics say that a man loses his voice if the wolf has seen him first. Whence also to one who suddenly falls silent this proverb is said: "The wolf in the tale."

[29] Sarcasmos est hostilis inrisio cum amaritudine, ut (Virg. Aen. 2,547):

[29] Sarcasm is a hostile derision with bitterness, as (Virg. Aen. 2,547):

Referes ergo haec, et nuntius ibis
Pelidae genitoris; illi mea tristia facta
degeneremque Neoptolemum narrare memento.

You will therefore report these things, and go as a messenger
to the father of the Pelides; remember to narrate to him my sad deeds
and that Neoptolemus is degenerate.

[30] Huic contrarius est Astysmos, urbanitas sine iracundia, ut illud (Virg. Ecl. 3,90):

[30] Contrary to this is Astysmos, urbanity without irascibility, as that (Virg. Ecl. 3,90):

Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Maevi,
atque idem iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos.

Whoever does not hate Bavius, let him love your songs, Maevius,
and likewise let him yoke foxes and milk he-goats.

Id est: qui Bavium non odit, pro poena ei contingat ut diligat Maevium. Fuerunt autem Maevius et Bavius poetae pessimi, et inimici Vergilii. Qui hos ergo diligit, faciat quae contra naturam sunt, id est, iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos.

That is: whoever does not hate Bavius, let it befall him as a penalty to love Maevius. Now Maevius and Bavius were the worst poets, and enemies of Vergil. Therefore, let whoever loves these do things that are against nature, that is, yoke foxes and milk he-goats.

[31] Homoeosis est, quae Latine interpretatur similitudo, per quam minus notae rei per similitudinem eius, quae magis nota est, panditur demonstratio. Huius species sunt tres: icon, parabolae, paradigma, id est imago, conparatio, exemplum.

[31] Homoeosis is what in Latin is interpreted as “similitude,” by which the demonstration of a less-known thing is unfolded through the similitude of that which is more known. Its species are three: icon, parable, paradigm, that is, image, comparison, example.

[32] Icon est imago, cum figuram rei ex simili genere conamur exprimere, ut (Virg. Aen. 4,558):

[32] Icon is an image, when we strive to express the figure of a thing from a similar kind, as (Virg. Aen. 4,558):

Omnia Mercurio similis, vocemque coloremque
et crines flavos et membra decora iuventa.

In all things like Mercury, both voice and color
and blond hair and limbs graceful with youth.

Congrua enim est similitudo de specie, cuius persona inducitur.

For a fitting similitude is drawn from the species of the one whose person is introduced.

[33] Parabola conparatio ex dissimilibus rebus, ut (Lucan. 1,205):

[33] A parable is a comparison from dissimilar things, as (Lucan. 1,205):

Qualis in arvis
aestiferae Libyae visus leo comminus hostem
consedit;

Just as in the fields
of aestiferous Libya a lion, on seeing an enemy at close quarters,
crouches;

ubi leoni Caesarem conparavit, non ex suo, sed ex alio genere similitudinem faciens.

where he compared Caesar to a lion, fashioning the similitude not from his own, but from another genus.

[34] Paradigma vero est exemplum dicti vel facti alicuius aut ex simili aut ex dissimili genere conveniens eius, quam proponimus, rei, ita: "Tam fortiter periit apud Hipponem Scipio quam Vticae Cato"

[34] A paradigm, truly, is an example of someone’s saying or deed, drawn either from a similar or from a dissimilar kind, fitting the matter which we set forth, thus: "Scipio perished as bravely at Hippo as Cato at Utica."

[35] Similitudo autem tribus modis fit: a pari, a maiore, a minore. A pari (Virg. Aen. 1,148):

[35] Similitude, moreover, is made in three modes: from an equal, from a greater, from a lesser. From an equal (Virgil, Aeneid 1,148):

Ac veluti magno in populo cum saepe coorta est
seditio;

And just as, when in a great populace there has often arisen
sedition;

a maiore ad minus (Lucan. 1,151):

from the greater to the lesser (Lucan. 1,151):

Qualiter expressum ventis per nubila fulmen;

Even as a thunderbolt, forced out by the winds, through the clouds;

a minore ad maius (Virg. Aen. 6,119):

from the lesser to the greater (Virgil, Aeneid 6,119):

Si potuit manes arcessere coniugis Orpheus,
Threicia fretus cithara fidibusque canoris;

If Orpheus was able to summon the shades of his spouse,
relying on the Thracian cithara and on tuneful strings;

quasi dicat, re parva et brevi, id est, si ille cithara fretus, ego pietate.

as though he were saying, by a small and brief matter, that is, if that man relied on the cithara, I on piety.

XXXVIII. DE PROSA.

38. ON PROSE.

[1] Prosa est producta oratio et a lege metri soluta. Prosum enim antiqui productum dicebant et rectum. Vnde ait Varro apud Plautum "prosis lectis’ significari rectis; unde etiam quae non est perflexa numero, sed recta, prosa oratio dicitur, in rectum producendo.

[1] Prose is extended oration and is loosed from the law of meter. For the ancients said that “prosum” meant “produced” and “straight.” Whence Varro, in Plautus, says that “prosis lectis” signifies “straight”; whence also that which is not twisted by number (meter), but straight, is called prose oration, by producing it into the straight.

Alii prosam aiunt dictam ab eo, quod sit profusa, vel ab eo, quod spatiosius proruat et excurrat, nullo sibi termino praefinito.

Others say that prose is so called from the fact that it is profuse, or from the fact that it more spaciously pours forth and runs out, with no terminus predetermined for itself.

[2] Praeterea tam apud Graecos quam apud Latinos longe antiquiorem curam fuisse carminum quam prosae. Omnia enim prius versibus condebantur; prosae autem studium sero viguit. Primus apud Graecos Pherecydes Syrus soluta oratione scripsit; apud Romanos autem Appius Caecus adversus Pyrrhum solutam orationem primus exercuit.

[2] Moreover, both among the Greeks and among the Latins there was a much earlier cultivation of poetry than of prose. For at first everything was composed in verses; the study of prose, however, flourished late. The first among the Greeks to write in prose was Pherecydes the Syrian; but among the Romans Appius Caecus was the first to employ prose against Pyrrhus.

Iam exhinc et ceteri prosae eloquentia contenderunt.

From then on, the rest too contended in the eloquence of prose.

XXXIX. DE METRIS.

39. ON METERS.

[1] Metra vocata, quia certis pedum mensuris atque spatiis terminantur, neque ultra dimensionem temporum constitutam procedunt. Mensura enim Graece METRON dicitur.

[1] They are called metres, because they are delimited by certain measures of feet and spaces, nor do they proceed beyond the established dimension of times. For “measure” in Greek is called METRON.

[2] Versus dicti ab eo, quod pedibus in ordine suo dispositi certo fine moderantur per articulos, quae caesa et membra nominantur. Qui ne longius provolverentur quam iudicium posset sustinere, modum statuit ratio unde reverteretur; et ab eo ipsum versum vocatum, quod revertitur.

[2] “Verses” are so called from this: that, arranged with feet in their own order, they are moderated by a fixed end through joints, which are named “cuts” and “members.” Lest they roll forward farther than judgment could sustain, Reason established a measure from which it would turn back; and from this the verse itself is called such, because it returns.

[3] Huic adhaeret rythmus, qui non est certo fine moderatus, sed tamen rationabiliter ordinatis pedibus currit; qui Latine nihil aliud quam numerus dicitur, de quo est illud (Virg. Ecl. 9,45):

[3] To this adheres rhythm, which is not moderated by a fixed end, yet runs with rationally ordered feet; which in Latin is called nothing other than number, concerning which is that (Virg. Ecl. 9,45):

Numeros memini, si verba tenerem.

I remember the numbers, if I could hold the words.

[4] Carmen vocatur quidquid pedibus continetur: cui datum nomen existimant seu quod carptim pronuntietur, unde hodie lanam, quam purgantes discerpunt, "carminare’ dicimus: seu quod qui illa canerent carere mentem existimabantur.

[4] Whatever is contained by feet is called a carmen: they reckon the name was given either because it is pronounced piecemeal (carptim), whence today we say “carminare’” of wool, which, when cleansing it, they tear apart; or because those who sang those things were thought to lack a mind (carere mente).

[5] Metra vel a pedibus nuncupata, vel a rebus quae scribuntur, vel ab inventoribus, vel a frequentatoribus, vel a numero syllabarum. A pedibus metra vocata, ut dactylica, iambica, trochaica.

[5] Meters are named either from the feet, or from the things that are written, or from the inventors, or from the frequenters, or from the number of syllables. From the feet, meters are called, as dactylic, iambic, trochaic.

[6] A trochaeo enim trochaicum metrum nascitur, a dactylo dactylicum; sic et alia a suis pedibus. A numero, ut hexametrum, pentametrum, trimetrum. Nam senarios versus nos ex numero pedum vocamus.

[6] For from the trochee the trochaic meter is born, from the dactyl the dactylic; thus likewise the others from their own feet. From the number, as hexameter, pentameter, trimeter. For we call verses “senarii” from the number of feet.

Hos Graeci, quia geminos feriunt, trimetros dicunt. Hexametros autem Latinos primum fecisse Ennius traditur; eosque "longos’ vocant.

The Greeks, because they take them in pairs, call these trimeters. But hexameters, Ennius is reported to have been the first among the Latins to compose; and they call them "longs".

[7] Ab inventoribus metra appellata dicuntur, ut Anacreonticum, Sapphicum, Archilochium. Nam Anacreontica metra Anacreon conposuit; Sapphica Sappho mulier edidit; Archilochios Archilochus quidam scripsit; Colophonios Colophonius quidam exercuit. Sotadeorum quoque repertor est Sotades genere Cretensis.

[7] Meters are said to be called from their inventors, as Anacreontic, Sapphic, Archilochian. For Anacreon composed the Anacreontic meters; Sappho, a woman, published the Sapphic; a certain Archilochus wrote the Archilochian; a certain Colophonius practiced the Colophonian. The discoverer of the Sotadeans, too, is Sotades, by birth a Cretan.

Simonidia quoque metra Simonides poeta lyricus conposuit.

Simonides the lyric poet also composed Simonidean meters.

[8] A frequentatoribus, ut Asclepiadia. Non enim ea Asclepius invenit, sed proinde ita vocata quod ea idem elegantissime [et frequentissime] usus sit.

[8] From frequenters, as the Asclepiads. For Asclepius did not invent them, but accordingly they were so named because that same man used them most elegantly [and most frequently].

[9] A rebus quae scribuntur, ut heroicum, elegiacum, bucolicum. Heroicum enim carmen dictum, quod eo virorum fortium res et facta narrantur. Nam heroes appellantur viri quasi aerii et caelo digni propter sapientiam et fortitudinem.

[9] From the things that are written, as the heroic, elegiac, bucolic. For the heroic poem is so called because in it the affairs and deeds of brave men are narrated. For heroes are called men as if airy and worthy of heaven on account of wisdom and fortitude.

Quod metrum auctoritate cetera metra praecedit; unus ex omnibus tam maximis operibus aptus quam parvis, suavitatis et dulcedinis aeque capax.

Which meter by authority precedes the other meters; the single one among all, as apt for the greatest works as for the small, equally capable of suavity and sweetness.

[10] Quibus virtutibus nomen solus obtinuit, ut heroicum vocaretur ad memorandas scilicet eorum res. Nam et prae ceteros simplicissimus habetur constatque duobus [pedibus], dactylo et spondeo, ac saepe pene vel ex hoc vel ex illo; nisi quod temperantissimus fit utriusque mixtura quam si instruatur a singulis.

[10] By these virtues it alone obtained the name, so that it was called “heroic,” namely for memorializing their deeds. For it is considered the simplest above the rest and consists of two [feet], the dactyl and the spondee, and often almost entirely of this one or of that one; except that it becomes most well‑tempered by a mixture of both rather than if it be constructed of either alone.

[11] Omnibus quoque metris prior est. Hunc primum Moyses in cantico Deuteronomii longe ante Pherecyden et Homerum cecinisse probatur. Vnde apparet antiquiorem fuisse apud Hebraeos studium carminum quam apud gentiles, siquidem et Iob Moysi temporibus adaequatus hexametro versu, dactylo spondeoque, decurrit.

[11] It is prior also to all meters. Moses is proved to have first sung this in the canticle of Deuteronomy, long before Pherecydes and Homer. Whence it appears that the cultivation of song was older among the Hebrews than among the gentiles, since indeed Job, contemporaneous with Moses, proceeds in hexameter verse, in dactyl and spondee.

[12] Hunc apud Graecos Achatesius Milesius fertur primus conposuisse, vel, ut alii putant, Pherecydes Syrus. Quod metrum ante Homerum Pythium dictum est, post Homerum heroicum nominatum.

[12] Among the Greeks, Achatesius the Milesian is said to have been the first to compose this, or, as others think, Pherecydes the Syrian. This meter before Homer was called Pythian; after Homer it was named heroic.

[13] Pythium autem vocatum volunt eo, quod hoc genere metri oracula Apollinis sint edita. Nam cum in Parnaso Pythonem serpentem in vindictam matris sagittis insequeretur, accolae Delphici hoc illum metro hortati sunt, dicentes, ut ait Terentianus (1591 K.), [IE PAIAN, IE PAIAN, IE PAIAN].

[13] They wish it to be called “Pythian” for this reason, that the oracles of Apollo were issued in this kind of meter. For when on Parnassus he was pursuing with arrows the serpent Python in vengeance for his mother, the Delphic inhabitants encouraged him in this meter, saying, as Terentianus says (1591 K.), [IE PAIAN, IE PAIAN, IE PAIAN].

[14] Elegiacus autem dictus eo, quod modulatio eiusdem carminis conveniat miseris. Terentianus hos elegos dicere solet, quod clausula talis tristibus, ut tradunt, aptior esset modis.

[14] And it is called elegiac because the modulation of this same song suits the wretched. Terentianus is wont to call these elegies, because such a clausula, as they hand down, is more fitting for sad modes.

[15] Hic autem vix omnino constat a quo sit inventus, nisi quia apud nos Ennius eum prior usus est. Nam apud Graecos sic adhuc lis Grammaticorum pendet, ut sub iudice res relegata sit. Nam quidam eorum Colophonium quendam, quidam Archilochum auctorem atque inventorem volunt.

[15] But as to this, it is scarcely agreed at all by whom it was invented, except that among us Ennius was the first to use it. For among the Greeks the dispute of the Grammarians still hangs, as though the matter were relegated to a judge. For some of them maintain a certain Colophonian, others Archilochus, as author and inventor.

[16] Bucolicum, id est pastorale carmen, plerique Syracusis primum conpositum a pastoribus opinantur, nonnulli Lacedaemone. Namque transeunte in Thraciam Xerxe rege Persarum, cum Spartanae virgines sub hostili metu neque egredi urbem neque pompam chorumque agrestem Dianae de more exercerent, turba pastorum, ne religio praeteriret, eundem inconditis cantibus celebrarunt. Appellatur autem Bucolicum de maiori parte, quamvis opilionum caprariorumque sermones in eis et cantica inserantur.

[16] The Bucolic, that is, pastoral song, most suppose was first composed at Syracuse by shepherds, some at Lacedaemon. For when Xerxes, king of the Persians, was crossing into Thrace, since the Spartan virgins, under hostile fear, neither went out of the city nor, according to custom, performed the procession and rustic chorus of Diana, a crowd of shepherds, lest the religious observance be allowed to pass by, celebrated the same with unpolished chants. It is called “Bucolic” from the greater part, although the speeches and songs of sheep‑herds and goatherds are inserted in them.

[17] Hymnos primum David prophetam in laudem Dei conposuisse ac cecinisse manifestum est. Deinde apud gentiles prima Memmia Timothoe fecit in Apollinem et Musas, quae fuit temporibus Ennii longe post David. Hymni autem ex Graeco in Latinum laudes interpretantur.

[17] It is manifest that the prophet David first composed and sang hymns in praise of God. Then among the gentiles the first, Memmia, of Timotheus, made them to Apollo and the Muses, who was in the times of Ennius, long after David. Moreover, hymni, from Greek into Latin, are interpreted as praises.

[18] Epithalamia sunt carmina nubentium, quae decantantur ab scholasticis in honorem sponsi et sponsae. Haec primum Salomon edidit in laudem Ecclesiae et Christi. Ex quo gentiles sibi epithalamium vindicarunt, et istius generis carmen adsumptum est.

[18] Epithalamia are songs of those being wed, which are chanted by scholastics in honor of the bridegroom and the bride. Solomon first published these in praise of the Church and Christ. From this the gentiles claimed the epithalamium for themselves, and a song of this kind was adopted.

Quod genus primum a gentilibus in scenis celebrabatur, postea tantum in nuptiis haesit. Vocatum autem epithalamium eo, quod in thalamis decantetur.

Which kind was at first celebrated by the gentiles on stages; afterwards it stuck only to nuptials. Moreover it was called “epithalamium” for this reason, that it is chanted in the bridal chambers.

[19] Threnos, quod Latine lamentum vocamus, primus versu Ieremias conposuit super urbem Hierusalem [quando subversa est] et populum [Israel] quando [subversus est et] captivus ductus est. Post hunc apud Graecos Simonides poeta lyricus. Adhibebantur autem funeribus atque lamentis: similiter et nunc.

[19] Threnos, which in Latin we call a lamentum, Jeremiah first composed in verse over the city Jerusalem [when it was overthrown] and the people [Israel] when [it was overthrown and] led away captive. After him, among the Greeks, Simonides, the lyric poet. They were employed, moreover, at funerals and lamentations: similarly even now.

[20] Epitaphium Graece, Latine supra tumulum. Est enim titulus mortuorum, qui in dormitione eorum fit, qui iam defuncti sunt. Scribitur enim ibi vita, mores et aetas eorum.

[20] Epitaph in Greek; in Latin, “above the tomb.” For it is the inscription of the dead, which is made at their dormition, who are already deceased. For there are written there their life, mores, and age.

[21] Poesis dicitur Graeco nomine opus multorum librorum, poema unius, idyllion paucorum versuum, distichon duorum, monostichon unius.

[21] Poesis is termed, by a Greek name, a work of many books; poema, of one; idyllion, of a few verses; distichon, of two; monostichon, of one.

[22] Epigramma est titulus, quod in Latinum superscriptio interpretatur; EPI enim super, GRAMMA littera vel scriptio dicitur.

[22] An epigram is a title, which in Latin is interpreted as a superscription; for EPI is said “over,” and GRAMMA “letter” or “writing.”

[23] Epodon in poemate clausula brevis est. Dictum autem epodon, quod adcinatur ad speciem elegiaci, ubi praemisso uno longiore, alter brevior conponitur, atque in singulis quibusque maioribus sequentes minores quasi clausulae recinunt.

[23] The epode in a poem is a brief clausula. It is called an epode because it is sung in accompaniment to the species of the elegiac, where, with one longer set first, another shorter is composed, and in each of the respective longer ones the following shorter, as it were clausulae, sing back in echo.

[24] Clausulas autem lyrici appellant quasi praecisos versus integris subiectos, ut est apud Horatium (Epod. 2,1):

[24] But the lyric poets call clauses, as it were, cut-off verses set beneath complete ones, as is in Horace (Epod. 2,1):

Beatus ille, qui procul negotiis,
deinde sequitur praecisus:
Vt prisca gens mortalium;

Blessed is he, who far from business,
then follows the cut-off:
As the ancient race of mortals;

sic et deinceps alterni, quibus aliqua pars deest, et ipsi praecedentibus similes, sed minores.

thus also thereafter, in alternation, there are those to which some part is absent; and they themselves are similar to the preceding, but smaller.

[25] Centones apud Grammaticos vocari solent, qui de carminibus Homeri seu Vergilii ad propria opera more centonario ex multis hinc inde conpositis in unum sarciunt corpus, ad facultatem cuiusque materiae.

[25] Among the Grammarians, “centos” are wont to be called those who, from the poems of Homer or of Vergil, for their own works, in the cento-maker’s manner, from many pieces composed here and there, patch together into one body, according to the capacity of each subject-matter.

[26] Denique Proba, uxor Adelphi, centonem ex Vergilio de Fabrica mundi et Evangeliis plenissime expressit, materia conposita secundum versus, et versibus secundum materiam concinnatis. Sic quoque et quidam Pomponius ex eodem poeta inter cetera stili sui otia Tityrum in Christi honorem conposuit: similiter et de Aeneidos.

[26] Finally Proba, the wife of Adelphus, most fully expressed a cento from Virgil on the Fabric of the World and the Gospels, with the material composed according to the verses, and the verses concinnated according to the material. Thus too a certain Pomponius, from the same poet, among other leisures of his style, composed a “Tityrus” in honor of Christ: similarly also from the Aeneid.

XL. DE FABVLA.

40. ON THE FABLE.

[1] Fabulas poetae a fando nominaverunt, quia non sunt res factae, sed tantum loquendo fictae. Quae ideo sunt inductae, ut fictorum mutorum animalium inter se conloquio imago quaedam vitae hominum nosceretur. Has primus invenisse traditur Alcmeon Crotoniensis, appellanturque Aesopiae, quia is apud Phrygas in hac re polluit.

[1] The poets named fables from “speaking,” because they are not things done, but only things feigned by speaking. They were introduced for this reason, that by the colloquy among themselves of feigned mute animals a certain image of the life of men might be recognized. Alcmaeon of Croton is reported to have first invented these, and they are called Aesopian, because he among the Phrygians in this matter prevailed.

[2] Sunt autem fabulae aut Aesopicae, aut Libysticae. Aesopicae sunt, cum animalia muta inter se sermocinasse finguntur, vel quae animam non habent, ut urbes, arbores, montes, petrae, flumina. Libysticae autem, dum hominum cum bestiis, aut bestiarum cum hominibus fingitur vocis esse conmercium.

[2] Fables are, moreover, either Aesopic or Libystic. Aesopic are those in which mute animals are feigned to have discoursed among themselves, or things which do not have a soul, such as cities, trees, mountains, rocks, rivers. Libystic, however, when it is feigned that there is a commerce of voice between men and beasts, or of beasts with men.

[3] Fabulas poetae quasdam delectandi causa finxerunt, quasdam ad naturam rerum, nonnullas ad mores hominum interpretati sunt. Delectandi causa fictas, ut eas, quas vulgo dicunt, vel quales Plautus et Terentius conposuerunt.

[3] Poets have fashioned certain fables for the sake of delight, some they have interpreted to the nature of things, and some to the mores of men. Those fabricated for the sake of delight are such as those which people commonly tell, or such as Plautus and Terence composed.

[4] Ad naturam rerum fabulas fingunt, ut "Vulcanus claudus" quia per naturam numquam rectus est ignis, ut illa triformis bestia (Lucret. 5,903):

[4] They feign fables according to the nature of things, as “Vulcan the lame,” because by nature fire is never straight, as that three-formed beast (Lucret. 5,903):

Prima leo, postrema draco, media ipsa Chimaera:

First a lion, last a dragon, the middle itself the Chimaera:

id est caprea, aetates hominum per eam volentes distinguere; quarum ferox et horrens prima adolescentia, ut leo; dimidium vitae tempus lucidissimum, ut caprea, eo quod acutissime videat; tunc fit senectus casibus inflexis, draco.

that is, a roe-deer, they wishing by it to distinguish the ages of human beings; of which the first, adolescence, is ferocious and bristling, like a lion; the middle span of life is most lucid, like the roe-deer, because it sees most sharply; then old age, with fortunes bent downward, becomes a dragon.

[5] Sic et Hippocentauri fabulam esse confictam, id est hominem equo mixtum, ad exprimendam humanae vitae velocitatem, quia equum constat esse velocissimum.

[5] Thus also the fable of the Hippocentaur was fabricated—that is, a man mixed with a horse—to express the velocity of human life, because it is established that the horse is most swift.

[6] Ad mores, ut apud Horatium mus loquitur muri et mustela vulpeculae, ut per narrationem fictam ad id quod agitur verax significatio referatur. Vnde et Aesopi talessunt fabulae ad morum finem relatae, vel sicut in libro Iudicum (9,8) ligna sibi regem requirunt et loquuntur ad oleam et ad ficum et ad vitem et ad rubum; quod totum utique ad mores fingitur ut ad rem, quae intenditur, ficta quidem narratione, sed veraci significatione veniatur.

[6] With respect to morals, as in Horace the mouse speaks to the mouse, and the weasel to the little fox, so that through a fictive narration a veracious signification may be referred to the matter at issue. Whence also Aesop’s tales are fables related to the moral end; or just as in the Book of Judges (9,8) the trees seek for themselves a king and speak to the olive and to the fig and to the vine and to the bramble; all of which is assuredly feigned with reference to morals, in order that one may come to the matter intended, by a narration indeed fictive, but with veracious signification.

[7] Sic et Demosthenes orator fabulam usus est adversus Philippum, qui cum ab Atheniensibus postularet ut sibi decem oratores darentur, et discederet, finxit ille [hanc] fabulam qua dissuaderet, dicens lupos aliquando pastoribus, quorum diligentiam decipere voluissent, suasisse ut in amicitiam convenirent, ea tamen condicione, ut si canes, in quibus erat causa iurgiorum, iure illis traderentur: adnuisse pastores et in spem securitatis dedisse canes, quos ovium suarum vigilantissimos custodes habebant. Tunc lupi, adempta omni formidine, omne quod in gregibus illis erat, non pro satietate tantum, verum etiam pro libidine laceraverunt. Philippum quoque principes populi postulare, quo facilius possit opprimere spoliatam custodibus urbem.

[7] Thus also the orator Demosthenes made use of a fable against Philip, who, when he was demanding from the Athenians that ten orators be given to him, and was departing, he fashioned [this] fable to dissuade, saying that the wolves once advised the shepherds—whose diligence they wished to deceive—to come into amity, yet on this condition: that if the dogs, in whom was the cause of the quarrels, should by right be handed over to them. The shepherds assented and, in hope of security, gave up the dogs, whom they had as the most vigilant guardians of their sheep. Then the wolves, with all fear removed, tore in pieces everything that was in those flocks, not only for satiety but even for lust. That Philip too is demanding the leaders of the people, so that he may more easily be able to oppress the city despoiled of its guardians.

XLI. DE HISTORIA.

41. ON HISTORY.

[1] Historia est narratio rei gestae, per quan ea, quae in praeterito facta sunt, dinoscuntur. Dicta autem Graece historia APO TOU ISTOREIN, id est a videre vel cognoscere. Apud veteres enim nemo conscribebat historiam, nisi is qui interfuisset, et ea quae conscribenda essent vidisset.

[1] History is a narration of a thing done, by which those things that were done in the past are recognized. Moreover, history is said in Greek from APO TOU ISTOREIN, that is, from to see or to know. For among the ancients, no one composed history unless he had been present and had seen the things that were to be written down.

Melius enim oculis quae fiunt deprehendimus, quam quae auditione colligimus.

For we apprehend with the eyes the things that happen better than those which we collect by audition.

[2] Quae enim videntur, sine mendacio proferuntur. Haec disciplina ad Grammaticam pertinet, quia quidquid dignum memoria est litteris mandatur. Historiae autem ideo monumenta dicuntur, eo quod memoriam tribuant rerum gestarum.

[2] For the things that are seen are put forward without mendacity. This discipline pertains to Grammar, because whatever is worthy of memory is committed to letters. The records of history are therefore called monuments, for the reason that they bestow the memory of deeds.

Series autem dicta per translationem a sertis florum invicem conprehensarum.

Series, however, is so called by transference from garlands of flowers intertwined with one another.

XLII. DE PRIMIS AVCTORIBVS HISTORIARVM.

42. ON THE FIRST AUTHORS OF HISTORIES.

[1] Historiam autem apud nos primus Moyses de initio mundi conscripsit. Apud gentiles vero primus Dares Phrygius de Graecis et Troianis historiam edidit, quam in foliis palmarum ab eo conscriptam esse ferunt.

[1] But among us, Moses first wrote the history from the beginning of the world. Among the gentiles, indeed, Dares the Phrygian first published a history about the Greeks and the Trojans, which they say was written by him on palm leaves.

[2] Post Daretem autem in Graecia Herodotus historiam primus habitus est. Post quem Pherecydes claruit his temporibus quibus Esdras legem scripsit.

[2] After Dares, however, in Greece Herodotus was held as the first in history. After him Pherecydes was illustrious in those times in which Ezra wrote the Law.

XLIII. DE VTILITATE HISTORIAE.

43. ON THE UTILITY OF HISTORY.

[1] Historiae gentium non inpediunt legentibus in his quae utilia dixerunt. Multi enim sapientes praeterita hominum gesta ad institutionem praesentium historiis indiderunt, siquidem et per historiam summa retro temporum annorumque supputatio conprehenditur, et per consulum regumque successum multa necessaria perscrutantur.

[1] The histories of the nations do not impede readers in those points where they have spoken things useful. For many wise men have inserted into histories the past deeds of men for the instruction of the present, since indeed through history the sum computation of times and years gone by is comprehended, and through the succession of consuls and kings many necessary things are thoroughly investigated.

XLIV. DE GENERIBVS HISTORIAE.

44. ON THE KINDS OF HISTORY.

[1] Genus historiae triplex est. Ephemeris namque appellatur unius diei gestio. Hoc apud nos diarium vocatur.

[1] The genre of history is threefold. For an ephemeris is called the record of the doings of a single day. This among us is called a diarium.

Nam quod Latini diurnum, Graeci ephemerida dicunt.

For what the Latins call a diurnum, the Greeks call an ephemeris.

[2] Kalendaria appellantur, quae in menses singulos digeruntur. Annales sunt res singulorum annorum.

[2] They are called Kalendaria, which are distributed into individual months. Annals are the matters of individual years.

[3] Quaequae enim digna memoriae domi militiaeque, mari ac terrae per annos in commentariis acta sunt, ab anniversariis gestis annales nominaverunt.

[3] For whatever things worthy of memory, at home and in the military, by sea and on land, were set down year by year in commentaries, from these annual deeds they named them annals.

[4] Historia autem multorum annorum vel temporum est, cuius diligentia annui commentarii in libris delati sunt. Inter historiam autem et annales hoc interest, quod historia est eorum temporum quae vidimus, annales vero sunt eorum annorum quos aetas nostra non novit. Vnde Sallustius ex historia, Livius, Eusebius et Hieronymus ex annalibus et historia constant.

[4] History, moreover, is of many years or times, by whose diligence the annual commentaries have been delivered into books. Between history and annals, however, this is the difference: history is of those times which we have seen, whereas annals are of those years which our age has not known. Whence Sallust belongs to history; Livy, Eusebius, and Jerome to annals and to history.

[5] Item inter historiam et argumentum et fabulam interesse. Nam historiae sunt res verae quae factae sunt; argumenta sunt quae etsi facta non sunt, fieri tamen possunt; fabulae vero sunt quae nec factae sunt nec fieri possunt, quia contra naturam sunt.

[5] Likewise there is a difference between history and argument and fable. For histories are true things which have been done; arguments are things which, although they have not been done, nevertheless can be done; but fables are things which have neither been done nor can be done, because they are contrary to nature.