Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] Linguarum diversitas exorta est in aedificatione turris post diluvium. Nam priusquam superbia turris illius in diversos signorum sonos humanam divideret societatem, una omnium nationum lingua fuit, quae Hebrae vocatur; quam Patriarchae et Prophetae usi sunt non solum in sermonibus suis, verum etiam in litteris sacris. Initio autem quot gentes, tot linguae fuerunt, deinde plures gentes quam linguae; quia ex una lingua multae sunt gentes exortae.

[1] The diversity of tongues arose in the edification (building) of the tower after the Deluge. For before the pride of that tower divided human society into diverse sounds of speech, there was one language of all nations, which is called Hebrew; which the Patriarchs and Prophets used not only in their discourses, but also in the sacred letters. In the beginning, however, there were as many peoples as languages; then more peoples than languages, because from one language many peoples arose.

[2] Linguae autem dictae in hoc loco pro verbis quae per linguam fiunt, genere locutionis illo quo is qui efficit per id quod efficitur nominatur; sicut os dici solet pro verbis, sicut manus pro litteris.

[2] Tongues, however, are called in this place for the words which are made through the tongue, by that kind of locution wherein the one who effects is named by that which is effected; just as mouth is wont to be said for words, just as hand for letters.

[3] Tres sunt autem linguae sacrae: Hebraea, Graeca, Latina, quae toto orbe maxime excellunt. His enim tribus linguis super crucem Domini a Pilato fuit causa eius scripta. Vnde et propter obscuritatem sanctarum Scripturarum harum trium linguarum cognitio necessaria est, ut ad alteram recurratur dum siquam dubitationem nominis vel interpretationis sermo unius linguae adtulerit.

[3] There are, moreover, three sacred languages: Hebrew, Greek, Latin, which most excel throughout the whole world. For in these three languages, upon the Lord’s cross, the charge (cause) against him was written by Pilate. Whence also, on account of the obscurity of the Holy Scriptures, knowledge of these three languages is necessary, so that one may have recourse to another whenever the speech of one language brings some doubt about a name or about an interpretation.

[4] Graeca autem lingua inter ceteras gentium clarior habetur. Est enim et Latinis et omnibus linguis sonantior: cuius varietas in quinque partibus discernitur. Quarum prima dicitur KOINU, id est mixta, sive communis quam omnes utuntur.

[4] But the Greek language is held as more illustrious among the other nations. For it is more sonorous than Latin and than all languages; its variety is distinguished into five parts. The first of these is called KOINU, that is, mixed, or common, which all use.

[5] Secunda Attica, videlicet Atheniensis, qua usi sunt omnes Graeciae auctores. Tertia Dorica, quam habent Aegyptii et Syri. Quarta Ionica, quinta Aeolica, quas AIOLISTI locutos dixerunt. Et sunt in observatione Graecae linguae eiusmodi certa discrimina; sermo enim eorum ita est dispertitus.

[5] The second is Attic, namely Athenian, which all the authors of Greece used. The third is Doric, which the Egyptians and the Syrians have. The fourth Ionic, the fifth Aeolic, which they said the AIOLISTI spoke. And in the observance of the Greek language there are certain fixed discriminations of this sort; for their speech is thus divided.

[6] Latinas autem linguas quattuor esse quidam dixerunt, id est Priscam, Latinam, Romanam, Mixtam. Prisca est, quam vetustissimi Italiae sub Iano et Saturno sunt usi, incondita, ut se habent carmina Saliorum. Latina, quam sub Latino et regibus Tusci et ceteri in Latio sunt locuti, ex qua fuerunt duodecim tabulae scriptae.

[6] Some have said that the Latin languages are four, that is, Prisca, Latin, Roman, Mixed. Prisca is that which the most ancient men of Italy used under Janus and Saturn, unpolished, as the songs of the Salii are. Latin is that which under Latinus and the Tuscan kings and the others in Latium was spoken, from which the Twelve Tables were written.

[7] Romana, quae post reges exactos a populo Romano coepta est, qua Naevius, Plautus, Ennius, Vergilius poetae, et ex oratoribus Gracchus et Cato et Cicero vel ceteri effuderunt. Mixta, quae post imperium latius promotum simul cum moribus et hominibus in Romanam civitatem inrupit, integritatem verbi per soloecismos et barbarismos corrumpens.

[7] The Roman, which after the kings were driven out was begun by the Roman people, in which the poets Naevius, Plautus, Ennius, and Vergil, and, among the orators, Gracchus and Cato and Cicero, as well as the rest, poured forth. The Mixed, which after the empire was more widely promoted burst into the Roman citizenship together with customs and men, corrupting the integrity of the word through solecisms and barbarisms.

[8] Omnes autem Orientis gentes in gutture linguam et verba conlidunt, sicut Hebraei et Syri. Omnes mediterraneae gentes in palato sermones feriunt, sicut Graeci et Asiani. Omnes Occidentis gentes verba in dentibus frangunt, sicut Itali et Hispani.

[8] But all the peoples of the Orient collide the tongue and words in the throat, as the Hebrews and Syrians. All the Mediterranean peoples strike their speech upon the palate, as the Greeks and Asians. All the peoples of the Occident break their words on the teeth, as the Italians and Spaniards.

[9] Syrus et Chaldaeus vicinus Hebraeo est in sermone, consonans in plerisque et litterarum sono. Quidam autem arbitrantur linguam ipsam esse Chaldaeam, quia Abraham de Chaldaeis fuit. Quod si hoc recipitur, a quomodo in Danielo Hebraei pueri linguam, quam non noverant, doceri iubentur?

[9] The Syriac and the Chaldaean is neighboring to Hebrew in speech, consonant in most respects and in the sound of the letters. Some, however, suppose the language itself to be Chaldaean, because Abraham was from the Chaldeans. But if this is received, then how, in Daniel, are the Hebrew boys bidden to be taught a tongue which they did not know?

[10] Omnem autem linguam unusquisque hominum sive Graecam, sive Latinam, sive ceterarum gentium aut audiendo potest tenere, aut legendo ex praeceptore accipere. Cum autem omnium linguarum scientia difficilis sit cuiquam, nemo tamen tam desidiosus est ut in sua gente positus suae gentis linguam nesciat. Nam quid aliud putandus est nisi animalium brutorum deterior?

[10] But every language each person can either retain by hearing, whether Greek, or Latin, or of the other peoples, or receive by reading from a preceptor. And since the science of all languages is difficult for anyone, yet no one is so slothful that, situated in his own nation, he does not know the language of his own people. For what else is he to be thought, if not worse than brute animals?

Illa enim propriae vocis clamorem exprimunt, iste deterior qui propriae linguae caret notitiam.

For those indeed express the clamor of their own proper voice; this one is worse, who lacks knowledge of his own language.

[11] Cuiusmodi autem lingua locutus est Deus in principio mundi, dum diceret: 'Fiat lux,' inveniri difficile est. Nondum enim erant linguae. Item qua lingua insonuit postea exterioribus hominum auribus, maxime ad primum hominem loquens, vel ad prophetas, vel dum corporaliter sonuit vox dicentis Dei: 'Tu es Filius meus dilectus'; ubi a quibusdam creditur illa lingua una et sola, quae fuit antequam esset linguarum diversitas.

[11] But what sort of language God spoke at the beginning of the world, when he said: 'Let there be light,' is difficult to discover. For there were not yet tongues. Likewise, in what language he sounded afterwards to the outer ears of men—especially when speaking to the first man, or to the prophets, or when the voice of God speaking sounded corporally: 'You are my beloved Son'—there are some who believe it was that one and sole language which existed before there was a diversity of tongues.

In diversis quippe gentibus creditur quod eadem lingua illis Deus loquatur quam ipsi homines utuntur, ut ab eis intellegatur.

Indeed, among diverse nations it is believed that God speaks to them in the same language which the humans themselves use, so that He may be understood by them.

[12] Loquitur autem Deus hominibus non per substantiam invisibilem, sed per creaturam corporalem, per quam etiam et hominibus apparere voluit, quando locutus est. Dicit etiam Apostolus (1 Cor. 13,1): 'Si linguis hominum loquar et angelorum.' Vbi quaeritur qua lingua angeli loquantur; non quod angelorum aliquae linguae sint, sed hoc per exaggerationem dicitur.

[12] But God speaks to human beings not by an invisible substance, but by a corporeal creature, through which he also wished to appear to human beings when he spoke. The Apostle also says (1 Cor. 13:1): 'If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels.' Where the question is raised as to what tongue the angels speak; not that there are any tongues of angels, but this is said by way of exaggeration.

[13] Item quaeritur qua lingua in futurum homines loquantur: nusquam reperitur. Nam dicit Apostolus (1 Cor. 13,8): 'Sive linguae, cessabunt.'

[13] Likewise it is inquired by what tongue men will speak in the future: it is found nowhere. For the Apostle says (1 Cor. 13,8): 'Whether tongues, they shall cease.'

[14] Ideo autem prius de linguis, ac deinde de gentibus posuimus, quia ex linguis gentes, non ex gentibus linguae exortae sunt.

[14] Therefore we set forth first about languages, and then about nations, because from languages the nations arose, not from nations the languages arose.

II. DE GENTIVM VOCABVLIS.

2. ON THE APPELLATIONS OF NATIONS.

[1] Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta, sive ab alia natione secundum propriam collectionem distincta, ut Graeciae, Asiae. Hinc et gentilitas dicitur. Gens autem appellata propter generationes familiarum, id est a gignendo, sicut natio a nascendo.

[1] A gens is a multitude sprung from one origin, or distinguished from another nation according to its own collection, as of Greece, of Asia. Hence also gentility is so called. Moreover, gens is named on account of the generations of families, that is, from begetting, just as natio is from being born.

[2] Gentes autem a quibus divisa est terra, quindecim sunt de Iaphet, triginta et una de Cham, viginti et septem de Sem, quae fiunt septuaginta tres, vel potius, ut ratio declarat, septuaginta duae; totidemque linguae, quae per terras esse coeperunt, quaeque crescendo provincias et insulas inpleverunt.

[2] But the nations by which the earth has been divided are 15 from Japheth, 31 from Ham, 27 from Shem, which make 73, or rather, as reason declares, 72; and just so many languages, which began to exist throughout the lands, and which, by growing, filled the provinces and the islands.

[3] Filii Sem quinque singulariter gentes singulas procreaverunt. Quorum primus Elam, a quo Elamitae principes Persidis: secundus Assur, a quo Assyriorum pullulavit imperium: tertius Arphaxat, a quo gens Chaldaeorum exorta est: quartus Ludi, a quo Lydii: quintus Aram, a quo Syri, quorum metropolis fuit Damascus.

[3] The sons of Shem, five in number, each individually begot single nations. Of whom the first was Elam, from whom the Elamites, princes of Persia: the second Assur, from whom the empire of the Assyrians burgeoned: the third Arphaxad, from whom the race of the Chaldaeans arose: the fourth Lud, from whom the Lydians: the fifth Aram, from whom the Syrians, whose metropolis was Damascus.

[4] Filii Aram, nepotes Sem, quattuor: Hus et Vl et Gether et Mes. Hus Traconitidis conditor, qui inter Palaestinam et Coelesyriam tenuit principatum, unde fuit Iob, secundum quod scriptum est (Iob 1,1): 'Vir erat in terra Hus': secundus Vl, a quo Armenii: tertius Gether, a quo Acarnanii sive Curiae: quartus Mes, a quo sunt hi qui vocantur Maeones.

[4] The sons of Aram, grandsons of Shem, are four: Hus and Vl and Gether and Mes. Hus, founder of Trachonitis, who held the principate between Palestine and Coele‑Syria, whence was Job, according as it is written (Job 1:1): 'There was a man in the land Hus': the second, Vl, from whom the Armenians: the third, Gether, from whom the Acarnanians or the Curiae: the fourth, Mes, from whom are those who are called the Maeones.

[5] Posteritas Arphaxat filii Sem; Heber nepos Arphaxat, a quo Hebraei; Iectam filius Heber, a quo Indorum orta est gens; Sale filius Iectam, a quo Bactriani, licet eos alii Scytharum exules suspicantur.

[5] The posterity of Arphaxat, son of Sem; Heber, grandson of Arphaxat, from whom the Hebrews; Iectam, son of Heber, from whom the nation of the Indians arose; Sale, son of Iectam, from whom the Bactriani, though others suspect them to be exiles of the Scythians.

[6] Ismael filius Abraham, a quo Ismaelitae, qui nunc corrupto nomine Saraceni, quasi a Sarra, et Agareni ab Agar.

[6] Ishmael, son of Abraham, from whom the Ishmaelites, who now, with the name corrupted, are the Saracens, as if from Sarah, and the Hagarenes from Hagar.

[7] Nabaioth filius Ismael, a quo Nabathei, qui ab Euphrata in mare Rubrum inhabitant.

[7] Nabaioth, son of Ishmael, from whom the Nabataeans, who inhabit from the Euphrates to the Red Sea.

[8] Moab et Ammon filii Loth, a quo Moabitae et Ammonitae.

[8] Moab and Ammon, sons of Lot, from whom the Moabites and the Ammonites.

[9] Edom filius Esau, a quo Idumaei. Haec sunt gentes quae de Sem stirpe descendunt, possidentes terram meridianam ab ortu solis usque ad Phoenices.

[9] Edom, son of Esau, from whom the Idumaeans. These are the nations which descend from the stock of Shem, possessing the southern land from the rising of the sun up to the Phoenicians.

[10] Filii Cham quattuor, ex quibus ortae sunt gentes haec: Chus, a quo Aethiopes progeniti; Mesraim, a quo Aegyptii perhibentur exorti.

[10] The sons of Ham are four, from whom these nations arose: Cush, from whom the Ethiopians were begotten; Mizraim, from whom the Egyptians are held to have sprung.

[11] Phut, a quo Libyi. Vnde et Mauretaniae fluvius usque in praesens Phut dicitur, omnisque circa eum regio Phuthensis.

[11] Phut, from whom the Libyans. Whence also a river of Mauretania even to the present is called Phut, and the whole region around it is Phuthensian.

[12] Chanaam, a quo Afri et Phoenices et Chananaeorum decem gentes.

[12] Canaan, from whom the Africans and the Phoenicians and the ten nations of the Canaanites.

[13] Item ex nepotibus Cham filii Chus, nepotes Cham sex. Filii Chus: Saba et Hevila, Sabatha, Rhegma, Seba, Cuza.

[13] Likewise, among the grandsons of Ham are the sons of Cush, six grandsons of Ham. The sons of Cush: Saba and Hevila, Sabatha, Rhegma, Seba, Cuza.

[14] Saba, a quo progeniti et appellati Sabaei, de quibus Vergilius (Georg. 2,117):

[14] Saba, from whom were begotten and named the Sabaeans, about whom Virgil (Georgics 2,117):

Solis est thurea virga Sabaeis.

The incense-rod is the Sun’s among the Sabaeans.

Hi sunt et Arabes.

These are also Arabs.

[15] Hevila, a quo Getuli in parte remotioris Africae heremo cohaerentes.

[15] Havilah, from whom are the Gaetuli, adjoining in the desert in the more remote part of Africa.

[16] Sabatha, a quo Sabatheni, qui nunc Astabari nominantur.

[16] Sabatha, from whom the Sabatheni, who are now named Astabari.

[17] Rhegma vero et Seba et Cuza paulatim antiqua vocabula perdiderunt, et quae nunc a veteribus habeant ignorantur.

[17] Rhegma, however, and Seba and Cuza have gradually lost their antique appellations, and what names they now bear, as given by the ancients, are unknown.

[18] Filii Rhegma, Saba et Dadan. Hic Saba per Sin litteram scribitur in Hebraeo; ille autem superior Saba per Samech, a quo appellatos Sabaeos: interpretatur autem nunc Saba Arabia.

[18] The sons of Rhegma: Saba and Dadan. This Saba is spelled with the letter Sin in Hebrew; but that earlier Saba with Samech, from whom the Sabaeans are so called: moreover, now Saba is interpreted as Arabia.

[19] Dadan, a quo gens est Aethiopiae in occidentali plaga. Filii Mesraim Labaim, a quo Libyi, qui quondam Phuthaei vocabantur.

[19] Dadan, from whom there is a nation of Ethiopia in the western region. The sons of Mesraim: Labaim, from whom the Libyans, who formerly were called Phutites, were named.

[20] Casloim, a quo Philistiim, quos veteres ALLOFULOUS, nos modo corrupte Palaestinos vocamus.

[20] Casloim, from whom the Philistines, whom the ancients called ALLOFULOUS, we now, corruptly, call Palaestinians.

[21] Ceterae sex gentes ignotae sunt, quia bello Aethiopico subversae usque ad oblivionem praeteritorum nominum pervenerunt.

[21] The remaining six nations are unknown, because, subverted by the Ethiopic war, they have come even to the oblivion of their bygone names.

[22] Filii Chanaam undecim, ex quo Chananaeorum decem gentes, quorum terram his expulsis Iudaei possiderunt. Quorum primogenitus Sidon, a quo Sidones. Vnde et urbs eorum in Phoenice Sidon vocatur.

[22] The sons of Canaan are eleven, from whom are the ten nations of the Canaanites, whose land, these having been expelled, the Jews possessed. Their firstborn is Sidon, from whom the Sidonians. Whence also their city in Phoenicia is called Sidon.

[23] Secundus Cheth, a quo Chetaei. Tertius Iebus, a quo Iebusaei, quorum fuit Hierusalem. Quartus Amorrhaeus, a quo Amorrhaei.

[23] The second, Cheth, from whom the Hittites (Chetaeans); the third, Jebus, from whom the Jebusites, whose was Jerusalem; the fourth, the Amorite, from whom the Amorites.

Quintus Gergesaeus, a quo Gergesaei. Sextus Hevaeus, a quo Hevaei. Ipsi sunt Gabaonitae, a civitate Gabaon, qui supplices venerunt ad Iesum.

Fifth Gergesaeus, from whom the Gergesei. Sixth Hevaeus, from whom the Hevei. They themselves are the Gabaonites, from the city Gabaon, who came as suppliants to Joshua.

[24] Septimus Aracaeus, qui Arcas condidit oppidum contra Tripolim in radicibus Libani situm. Octavus Sinaeus, a quo Sinaei. Nonus Aradius, a quo Aradii sunt, qui Aradum insulam possiderunt angusto fretu a Phoenicis litore separatam.

[24] The seventh Aracaeus, who founded the town Arcas set opposite Tripolis, situated at the roots of Lebanon. The eighth Sinaeus, from whom are the Sinaeans. The ninth Aradius, from whom are the Aradians, who possessed the island Aradus, separated by a narrow strait from the Phoenician shore.

[25] Decimus Samareus, a quo Syriae nobilis civitas, quae vocatur Coeles. Vndecimus Amathaeus. Haec sunt gentes de stirpe Cham, quae a Sidone usque ad Gaditanum fretum omnem meridianam partem tenent.

[25] Tenth Samareus, from whom is the noble city of Syria, which is called Coeles. Eleventh Amathaeus. These are the nations of the stock of Cham, who hold the whole southern part from Sidon as far as the Gaditan strait.

Item tribus filiorum Iafeth.

Also the tribes of the sons of Japheth.

[26] Filii igitur Iaphet septem nominantur: Gomer, ex quo Galatae, id est Galli.

[26] Therefore the sons of Japheth are named as seven: Gomer, from whom the Galatae, that is, the Gauls.

[27] Magog, a quo arbitrantur Scythas et Gothos traxisse originem.

[27] Magog, from whom they think the Scythians and Goths have drawn their origin.

[28] Madai, a quo Medos existere putant.

[28] Madai, from whom they think the Medes to have arisen.

[29] Iavan, a quo Iones, qui et Graeci. Vnde et mare Ionium. Thubal, a quo Iberi, qui et Hispani; licet quidam ex eo et Italos suspicentur.

[29] Javan, from whom the Ionians, who are also Greeks. Whence also the Ionian Sea. Tubal, from whom the Iberians, who are also Spaniards; although some suspect from him the Italians as well.

[30] Mosoch, ex quo Cappadoces. Vnde et urbs apud eos usque hodie Mazaca dicitur.

[30] Mosoch, from whom the Cappadocians. Whence also a city among them is to this day called Mazaca.

[31] Thiras, ex quo Thraces; quorum non satis inmutatum vocabulum est, quasi Tiraces.

[31] Thiras, from whom the Thracians; whose vocable is not sufficiently altered, as if Tiraces.

[32] Filii Gomer, nepotes Iaphet. Aschanaz, a quo Sarmatae, quos Graeci Rheginos vocant.

[32] The sons of Gomer, the grandsons of Japheth: Aschanaz, from whom the Sarmatians, whom the Greeks call Rhegini.

[33] Riphath, a quo Paphlagones. Gotorna, a quo sunt Phryges.

[33] Riphath, from whom the Paphlagonians. Gotorna, from whom are the Phrygians.

[34] Filii Iavan Elisa, a quibus Graeci Elisaei, qui vocantur Aeolides. Vnde et lingua quinta Graece AIOLIS appellatur.

[34] The sons of Javan: Elisa, from whom the Greeks are Elisaeans, who are called Aeolids. Whence also the fifth tongue, in Greek, is called AIOLIS.

[35] Tharsis, a quo Cilices, ut Iosephus arbitratur. Vnde et metropolis civitas eorum Tharsus dicitur.

[35] Tharsis, from whom the Cilicians, as Josephus judges. Whence also their metropolis city is called Tarsus.

[36] Cethim, a quo Citii, id est Cyprii, a quibus hodieque urbs Citium nominatur.

[36] Cethim, from whom the Citians, that is, the Cyprians; from whom even today the city Citium is named.

[37] Dodanim, a quo Rhodii. Haec sunt gentes de stirpe Iaphet, quae a Tauro monte ad aquilonem mediam partem Asiae et omnem Europam usque ad Oceanum Brittanicum possident, nomina et locis et gentibus relinquentes; de quibus postea inmutata sunt plurima, cetera permanent ut fuerunt.

[37] Dodanim, from whom the Rhodians. These are the nations from the stock of Japheth, who from Mount Taurus toward the north possess the middle part of Asia and all Europe as far as the British Ocean, leaving names to places and peoples; of which later very many have been changed, the rest remain as they were.

[38] Nam multarum gentium vocabula partim manserunt, ita ut hodieque appareat unde fuerant derivata, sicut ex Assur Assyrii, ex Heber Hebraei: partim vero temporis vetustate ita mutata sunt, ut vix homines doctissimi antiquissimas historias perscrutantes, nec omnium, sed aliquarum ex istis origines gentium potuerunt reperire.

[38] For the names of many peoples have in part remained, such that even today it appears whence they were derived, as from Assur the Assyrians, from Heber the Hebrews; but in part, by the vetustity of time, they have been so changed that scarcely the most learned men, scrutinizing the most ancient histories, have been able to discover the origins of some— not of all— of these peoples.

[39] Nam quod ex filio Cham, qui vocatur Mesraim, Aegyptii sunt exorti, nulla hic resonat origo vocabuli, sicut nec Aethiopum, qui dicuntur ad eum filium Cham pertinere qui Chus appellatus est. Et si omnia considerentur, plura tamen gentium mutata quam manentia vocabula apparent; quibus postea nomina diversa dedit ratio. Namque Indi ab Indo flumine dicti sunt, qui ab occidentali parte eos includit.

[39] For as to the fact that from the son of Cham, who is called Mesraim, the Egyptians have arisen, no origin of the vocable resounds here, just as neither for the Aethiopians, who are said to pertain to that son of Cham who was called Chus. And if all things be considered, yet more vocables of nations appear changed than remaining; to which afterward Reason gave diverse names. For indeed the Indi are named from the river Indus, which encloses them on the western side.

[40] Seres a proprio oppido nomen sortiti sunt, gens ad Orientem sita, apud quos de arboribus lana contexitur. De quibus est illud:

[40] The Seres obtained their name from their own town, a nation situated toward the Orient, among whom wool is woven from trees. Of whom is this:

Ignoti facie, sed noti vellere Seres.

Unknown in face, but known by fleece, the Seres.

[41] Gangaridae populi sunt inter Assyrios Indosque, habitantes circa Gangen fluvium. Vnde etiam Gangaridae nuncupati sunt.

[41] The Gangaridae are a people between the Assyrians and the Indians, inhabiting around the river Ganges. Whence also they are named Gangaridae.

[42] Hircani dicti a silva Hircania, ubi sunt plurimae tigres.

[42] The Hyrcanians are named from the Hyrcanian forest, where there are very many tigers.

[43] Bactriani Scythae fuerunt, qui suorum factione a sedibus suis pulsi iuxta Bactron Orientis fluvium consederunt, ex cuius vocabulo et nomen sortiti. Huius gentis rex fuit Zoroastres, inventor magicae artis.

[43] The Bactrians were Scythians, who, driven from their seats by the faction of their own people, settled near the river Bactrus of the Orient, from whose appellation they also got their name. The king of this nation was Zoroaster, the inventor of the magical art.

[44] Parthi quoque et ipsi ab Scythis originem trahunt. Fuerunt enim eorum exules, quod etiam eorum vocabulo manifestatur. Nam Scythico sernione exules 'parthi' dicuntur.

[44] The Parthians also, they themselves, draw their origin from the Scythians. For they were exiles of them, which is even made manifest by their vocable. For in Scythian speech exiles are called ‘parthi’.

Hi, similiter ut Bactriani, domesticis seditionibus Scythia pulsi solitudines iuxta Hircaniam primum furtim occupaverunt, deinde pleraque finium etiam virtute obtinuerunt.

These, similarly as the Bactrians, driven from Scythia by domestic seditions, first furtively seized the solitudes near Hyrcania, then by valor also obtained most of the borders.

[45] Assyrii ab Assur filio Sem vocati, gens potentissima, quae ab Euphrate usque ad Indorum fines omnem in medio tenuit regionem.

[45] The Assyrians, named from Assur, son of Shem, a most powerful people, who held all the region in the middle from the Euphrates up to the borders of the Indians.

[46] Medi a rege suo cognominati putantur. Namque Iason, Peliaci regis frater, a Peliae filiis Thessalia pulsus est cum Medea uxore sua; cuius fuit privignus Medus rex Atheniensium, qui post mortem Iasonis Orientis plagam perdomuit, ibique Mediam urbem condidit, gentemque Medorum nomine suo appellavit. Sed invenimus in Genesi quod Madai auctor gentis Medorum fuit, a quo et cognominati, ut superius dictum est.

[46] The Medes are thought to have been cognominated after their king. For Jason, brother of King Pelias, was driven from Thessaly by the sons of Pelias, with Medea his wife; whose stepson was Medus, king of the Athenians, who, after the death of Jason, thoroughly subdued the quarter of the Orient, and there founded the city Media, and called the nation of the Medes by his own name. But we find in Genesis that Madai was the founder of the nation of the Medes, from whom also they are cognominated, as was said above.

[47] Persae a Perseo rege sunt vocati, qui e Graecia Asiam transiens, ibi barbaras gentes gravi diuturnoque bello perdomuit, novissime victor nomen subiectae genti dedit. Persae autem ante Cyrum ignobiles fuerunt, et nullius inter gentes loci habebantur. Medi semper potentissimi fuerunt.

[47] The Persians are called from King Perseus, who, crossing from Greece into Asia, there thoroughly subdued the barbarian nations in a grave and diuturnal war, and at last, as victor, gave his name to the subjected people. But the Persians before Cyrus were ignoble, and were held of no place among the nations. The Medes were always most powerful.

[48] Chasdei, qui nunc Chaldaei vocantur, a Chased filio Nachor fratris Abrahae cognominati sunt.

[48] The Chasdei, who are now called Chaldaeans, were named after Chased, son of Nahor, the brother of Abraham.

[49] Sabaei dicti APO TOU SEBESTHAI, quod est supplicari et venerari, quia divinitatem per ipsorum tura veneramus. Ipsi sunt et Arabes, quia in montibus Arabiae sunt, qui vocantur Libanus et Antilibanus, ubi tura colliguntur.

[49] The Sabaeans are called APO TOU SEBESTHAI, which is “to supplicate and to venerate,” because we venerate the divinity through their incense. They themselves are also Arabs, since they are in the mountains of Arabia, which are called Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, where incense is gathered.

[50] Syri a Surim vocati perhibentur, qui fuit nepos Abraham ex Cethura. Quos autem veteres Assyrios, nunc nos vocamus Syros, a parte totum appellantes.

[50] The Syrians are held to be named from Surim, who was a grandson of Abraham by Keturah. But those whom the ancients called Assyrians, we now call Syrians, calling the whole from a part.

[51] Hebraei vocati sunt ab Heber, qui pronepos fuit Sem.

[51] The Hebrews were named after Heber, who was the great-grandson of Shem.

[52] Israelitae vero ab Israel filio Isaac. Nam patriarcham Hebraeorum fuisse Israel, a quo duodecim Iudaeorum tribus Israelis vocabulum sortitae sunt. Iudaeis autem scissura decem tribuum nomen inposuit.

[52] But the Israelites are called from Israel, the son of Isaac. For Israel was the patriarch of the Hebrews, from whom the twelve tribes of the Jews obtained the appellation of Israel. Moreover, upon the Jews the scission of the ten tribes imposed the name.

Nam antea Hebraei sive Israelitae nuncupabantur.

For previously they were denominated Hebrews or Israelites.

[53] Ex quo autem in duo regna Dei populus est divisus, tunc duae tribus, quae de stirpe Iuda reges habebant, Iudaeorum nomen sortitae sunt. Reliqua pars decem tribuum, quae in Samaria regem sibi constituit, ob populi magnitudinem pristinum nomen retinuit Israel.

[53] But from the time when the people of God was divided into two kingdoms, then the two tribes, which had kings from the stock of Judah, were allotted the name of the Jews. The remaining part of the ten tribes, which in Samaria established a king for itself, on account of the magnitude of the people retained the former name Israel.

[54] Samaritanorum gens sumpsit exordium ab Assyriis, qui transmigrati habitaverunt in Samaria, qui Latine interpretantur custodes, eo quod captivato Israel isti in terram regionis eorum ad custodiam conlocati sunt.

[54] The nation of the Samaritans took its beginning from the Assyrians, who, having been transplanted, dwelt in Samaria—who in Latin are interpreted as “custodes,” that is, custodians—because, with Israel taken captive, these were settled in the land of their region for custody.

[55] Phoenix, Cadmi frater, de Thebis Aegyptiorum in Syriam profectus, apud Sidonem regnavit, eosque populos ex suo nomine Phoenices, eamque provinciam Phoeniciam nuncupavit.

[55] Phoenix, brother of Cadmus, having set out from Thebes of the Egyptians into Syria, reigned at Sidon, and he denominated those peoples Phoenicians from his own name, and that province Phoenicia.

[56] Sidones autem a civitate quae vocatur Sidon traxisse vocabulum perhibentur.

[56] The Sidonians, moreover, are reported to have drawn their appellation from the city which is called Sidon.

[57] Saraceni dicti, vel quia ex Sarra genitos se praedicent, vel sicut gentiles aiunt, quod ex origine Syrorum sint, quasi Syriginae. Hi peramplam habitant solitudinem. Ipsi sunt et Ismaelitae, ut liber Geneseos docet, quod sint ex Ismaele.

[57] The Saracens are so called, either because they proclaim themselves born from Sarra (Sarah), or, as the gentiles say, because they are from the origin of the Syrians, as if “Syrigenes.” They inhabit a very vast desert. They themselves are also Ishmaelites, as the book of Genesis teaches, because they are from Ishmael.

Ipsi Cedar a filio Ismaelis. Ipsi Agareni ab Agar; qui, ut diximus, perverso nomine Saraceni vocantur, quia ex Sarra se genitos gloriantur.

They are the Kedar from the son of Ishmael. They are the Hagarenes from Hagar; who, as we said, are called by the misapplied name Saracens, because they boast that they are born from Sarah.

[58] Philistaei ipsi sunt Palaestini, quia P litteram sermo Hebraeus non habet, sed pro eo Phi Graeco utitur. Inde Philistaei pro Palaestinis dicuntur, a civitate utique sua. Idem et Allophyli, id est alienigenae, ob hoc, quia semper fuerunt inimici Israel, et longe ab eorum genere ac societate separati.

[58] The Philistines are themselves the Palestinians, because the Hebrew speech does not have the letter P, but in its place uses the Greek Phi. Thence the Philistines are said instead of the Palestinians, from their own city, to be sure. The same are also Allophyli, that is, alien-born, on this account, because they have always been enemies of Israel, and far separated from their race and fellowship.

[59] Chananei appellati de Chanaam filio Cham, quorum terram Iudaei possiderunt. Ex cuius origine fuit Emor, pater Sichem, a quo Amorrhaei sunt nuncupati.

[59] The Canaanites are so called from Canaan, son of Ham, whose land the Jews possessed. From his origin was Emor, father of Sichem, from whom the Amorites are called.

[60] Aegyptii ab Aegypto quodam rege vocati sunt. Nam antea Aerii dicebantur. Inter pretantur autem lingua Hebraica Aegyptii adfligentes, eo quod adflixerint Dei populum, priusquam divino auxilio liberarentur.

[60] The Egyptians were named from a certain king Aegyptus. For previously they were called the Aerii. Moreover, in the Hebrew tongue Egyptians is interpreted as “afflicters,” because they afflicted the people of God, before they were freed by divine aid.

[61] Armenius ex Thessalia unus de numero ducum Iasonis, qui ad Colchos profecti sunt, recollecta multitudine, quae amisso rege Iasone passim vagabantur, Armeniam condidit, gentique ex suo vocabulo nomen dedit.

[61] Armenius, from Thessaly, one of the number of Jason’s leaders, who set out to Colchis, having re-collected the multitude who, after King Jason was lost, were wandering everywhere, founded Armenia, and gave to the people a name from his own vocable.

[62] Limes est Persicus, qui Scythas ab eis dividit, Scytha cognominatus, a quo limite Scythae a quibusdam perhibentur vocati, gens antiquissima semper habita. Hi Parthos Bactrianosque; feminae autem eorum Amazonum regna condiderunt.

[62] The frontier is Persian, which divides the Scythians from them, surnamed Scythian; from which limit the Scythians are by some asserted to have been called, a nation always held most ancient. These conquered the Parthians and the Bactrians; but their women founded the realms of the Amazons.

[63] Massagetae ex Scytharum origine sunt. Et dicti Massagetae quasi graves, id est fortes Getae. Nam sic Livius argentum grave dicit, id est massas.

[63] The Massagetae are from the origin of the Scythians. And they are called Massagetae as if “heavy,” that is, strong Getae. For thus Livy says “heavy silver,” that is, masses (ingots).

Hi sunt, qui inter Scythas atque Albanos septentrionalibus locis inhabitant.

These are those who inhabit the northern regions between the Scythians and the Albani.

[64] Amazones dictae sunt, seu quod simul viverent sine viris, quasi AMA ZON, sive quod adustis dexterioribus mammis essent, ne sagittarum iactus inpediretur, quasi ANEU MAZON. Nudabant enim quam adusserant mammam. Has Titianus Vnimammas dicit.

[64] The Amazons are so called, either because they lived together without men, as if AMA ZON, or because they had their right-hand breasts cauterized, lest the casting of arrows be impeded, as if ANEU MAZON. For they would bare the breast which they had burned. Titianus calls them Unimammas.

Nam hoc est Amazon, quasi ANEU MAZOU, id est sine mamma. Has iam non esse, quod earum partim ab Hercule, partim ab Achille vel Alexandro usque ad internicionem deletae sunt.

For this is Amazon, as if ANEU MAZOU, that is, without a mamma. These now do not exist, because they were destroyed unto internecine extermination, in part by Hercules, in part by Achilles or Alexander.

[65] In partes Asiaticae Scythiae gentes, quae posteros se Iasonis credunt, albo crine nascuntur ab adsiduis nivibus; et ipsius capilli color genti nomen dedit. Et inde dicuntur Albani. Horum glauca oculis, id est picta, inest pupilla, adeo ut nocte plus quam die cernant.

[65] In the Asiatic parts of Scythia, peoples who believe themselves the descendants of Jason are born with white hair from continual snows; and the color of the hair itself gave the people its name. And from that they are called Albani. In their eyes there is a glaucous, that is, “painted,” pupil, to such a degree that they see more by night than by day.

Albani autem vicini Amazonum fuerunt.

But the Albani were neighbors of the Amazons.

[66] Hugnos antea Hunnos vocatos, postremo a rege suo Avares appellatos, qui prius in ultima Maeotide inter glacialem Tanaim et Massagetarum inmanes populos habitaverunt. Deinde pernicibus equis Caucasi rupibus, feras gentes Alexandri claustra cohibente, eruperunt, et orientem viginti annis tenuerunt captivum, et ab Aegyptiis atque Aethiopibus annuum vectigal exegerunt.

[66] The Hugni, earlier called Huns, and at last appellated Avars from their own king, who previously inhabited in the farthest Maeotis between the glacial Tanais and the immense peoples of the Massagetans. Then, with fleet horses, through the crags of the Caucasus—Alexander’s barriers restraining the wild nations—they burst forth, and held the Orient captive for twenty years, and exacted an annual tribute from the Egyptians and the Ethiopians.

[67] Troianorum gens antea Dardana a Dardano nominata. Nam Dardanus et Iasius fratres e Graecia profecti; ex his Iasius ad Thraciam, Dardanus ad Phrygiam pervenit, ibique primus regnavit. Post quem filius eius Ericthonius, deinde nepos eius Tros, a quo Troiani nuncupati sunt.

[67] The nation of the Trojans, earlier Dardanian, named from Dardanus. For Dardanus and Iasius, brothers, set out from Greece; of these, Iasius came to Thrace, Dardanus to Phrygia, and there he first reigned. After him his son Erichthonius, then his grandson Tros, from whom the Trojans were named.

[68] Galatae Galli esse noscuntur, qui in auxilium a rege Bithyniae evocati, regnum cum eo parta victoria diviserunt; sicque deinde Graecis admixti primum Gallograeci, nunc ex antiquo Gallorum nomine Galatae nuncupantur.

[68] The Galatae are known to be Gauls, who, summoned into aid by the king of Bithynia, after a victory won divided the kingdom with him; and thus thereafter, admixed with the Greeks, at first they were called Gallo-Greeks (Gallograeci), now, from the ancient name of the Gauls, they are called Galatae.

[69] Graeci ante Thessali a Thessalo, postea a Graeco rege Graeci sunt nuncupati. Nam Graeci proprie Thessali sunt.

[69] The Greeks were formerly Thessalians from Thessalus, later from the king Graecus they were called Greeks. For the Greeks properly are Thessalians.

[70] Lapithas autem gentem Thessaliae fuisse aiunt, circa Penion amnem olim inhabitantem, a Lapitha Apollinis filia nuncupatos.

[70] But they say the Lapiths were a people of Thessaly, once inhabiting around the river Penion, named from Lapitha, daughter of Apollo.

[71] Sicyonii Graeci sunt nuncupati, a Sicyone rege. Hi primum Agialei vocabantur, a rege Agealeo, qui primus Sicyonis imperavit; a quo et Agealea civitas nuncupata est, quae nunc Peloponensis vocatur a Pelope rege suo. Ipsi sunt et Arcades, ab Arcade rege Iovis et Callistae filio dicti.

[71] The Sicyonians are called Greeks, from King Sicyon. These were first called Agialei, from King Agealus, who first ruled Sicyon; from whom also the city was named Agealea, which now is called Peloponensis from its own king Pelops. They themselves are also Arcadians, named from King Arcas, the son of Jove and Callisto.

[72] Danai a Danao rege vocati. Idem et Argivi, ab Argo conditore cognominati. Postquam autem rex Graecorum Apis mortuus est, huic filius Argus successit in regnum, et ex eo Argivi appellati sunt; qui etiam ab eis post obitum [ut] deus haberi coepit, templo et sacrificio honoratus.

[72] The Danai were called from King Danaus. The same are also Argives, cognominated from Argo, the founder. But after Apis, king of the Greeks, died, his son Argus succeeded him in the kingdom, and from him they were called Argives; and he too, after his death, began to be held by them as a god, honored with a temple and sacrifice.

[73] Achaei, qui et Achivi, ab Achaeo Iovis filio dicti.

[73] Achaeans, who are also Achivi, named after Achaeus, son of Jove.

[74] Pelasgi nominati, quia cum velis passis verno tempore advenisse Italiam visi sunt, ut aves. Primo enim eos Varro Italiam adpulisse commemorat. Graeci vero Pelasgos a Iovis et Larissae filio perhibent dictos.

[74] Pelasgi were named so because, with sails spread, they were seen to have arrived in Italy in springtime, like birds. For Varro records that they first made landfall in Italy. The Greeks, however, assert that the Pelasgi are named from the son of Jove and Larissa.

[75] Myrmidones fuerunt Achilli socii: Dolopes Pyrrhi. Dicti autem sunt Myrmidones propter astutiam, quasi MURMEKES, id est formicae. Eratosthenes autem dicit dictos Myrmidonas a Myrmidone duce, Iovis et Eurymedusae filio.

[75] The Myrmidons were allies of Achilles: the Dolopians of Pyrrhus. And they are called Myrmidons on account of craftiness, as if MURMEKES, that is, ants. But Eratosthenes says the Myrmidons are named from Myrmidon, a leader, son of Jove and Eurymedusa.

[76] Cecropi Atheniensium regi successit Cranaus, cuius filia Atthis nomen et regionis et gentis dedit. Et ex ea Attici cognominati, qui sunt Athenienses.

[76] To Cecrops, king of the Athenians, succeeded Cranaus, whose daughter Atthis gave the name both to the region and to the gens. And from her the Attics were cognominated, who are the Athenians.

[77] Ion, vir fortis, ex suo nomine eosdem Athenienses vocavit Iones.

[77] Ion, a brave man, from his own name called those same Athenians Ionians.

[78] Macedones a nomine Emathionis regis antea Emathii nuncupati sunt: postea Macedones dicti.

[78] The Macedonians, from the name of King Emathion, were formerly called Emathii; afterwards they were called Macedonians.

[79] Epirotae a Pyrrho Achilli filio prius Pyrrhidae, postea vero Epiro rege É ad Italiam transire praesumpserunt.

[79] The Epirotes, from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, were formerly called Pyrrhidae; afterwards, indeed, under King Epirus they presumed to cross to Italy.

[80] Dorus Neptuni et Ellepis filius fuit, unde Dori et originem et nomen ducunt. Sunt autem pars Graeciae gentis; ex quibus etiam cognominata est tertia lingua Graecorum, quae Dorica appellatur.

[80] Dorus was the son of Neptune and Ellepis, whence the Dorians draw both their origin and their name. They are, moreover, a part of the Greek people; from them also the third language of the Greeks is cognominated, which is called Doric.

[81] Lacedaemones a Lacedaemone Semelae filio dicti. Hi diu perseverantes in bellum contra Messenios, veriti ne diuturnitate proelii spem prolis amitterent, praeceperunt ut virgines eorum cum iuvenibus domi relictis concumberent; sicque ex promiscuo virginum concubitu iuvenes de incertis parentibus nati ex nota materni pudoris Spartani vocati sunt. Nam ipsos esse Spartanos, quos et Lacedaemonios.

[81] The Lacedaemonians are so called from Lacedaemon, the son of Semele. They, persevering long in war against the Messenians, fearing lest by the long duration of the battle they might lose the hope of progeny, ordered that their virgins should lie with the youths left at home; and thus, from the promiscuous concubitus of the virgins, the youths born of uncertain fathers, by the mark of maternal modesty, were called Spartans. For Spartans are the same as Lacedaemonians.

[82] Thraces ex filio Iaphet, qui vocatus est Thiras, et orti et cognominati, ut superius dictum est, perhibentur; licet gentiles eos ex moribus ita dictos existimant, quod sint truces. Saevissimi enim omnium gentium fuerunt, unde et multa de eis fabulosa memorantur: quod captivos diis suis litarent, et humanum sanguinem in ossibus capitum potare soliti essent. De quibus Vergilius (Aen. 3,44):

[82] The Thracians are held to have both arisen and been surnamed from the son of Japheth, who was called Thiras, as was said above; although the Gentiles suppose them thus named from their manners, because they are truculent. For they were the most savage of all nations, whence many fabulous things are recounted about them: that they sacrificed captives to their gods, and were accustomed to drink human blood from skull-bones. About whom Vergil (Aen. 3,44):

Heu fuge crudeles terras, fuge litus avarum;

Ah, flee the cruel lands, flee the avaricious shore;

quasi crudelium et avarorum.

as if of the cruel and the avaricious.

[83] Istrorum gens originem a Colchis ducit, qui missi ad Argonautas persequendos, ut a Ponto intraverunt Istrum fluvium, a vocabulo amnis, quo a mari recesserunt, appellati sunt.

[83] The nation of the Istrians derives its origin from the Colchians, who, sent to pursue the Argonauts, when from the Pontus they entered the river Ister, were named from the vocable of the stream by which they withdrew from the sea.

[84] Romani a Romuli nomine nuncupati, qui urbem Romam condidit gentique et civitati nomen dedit. Hi antea a Saturno Saturnii, a Latino Latini vocati sunt. Nam Latinus Italiae rex fuit, qui ex suo nomine Latinos appellavit, qui postea Romani nuncupati sunt.

[84] The Romans are named from the name of Romulus, who founded the city Rome and gave a name to the people and the city. These earlier were called Saturnians from Saturn, and Latins from Latinus. For Latinus was a king of Italy, who from his own name appellated the Latins, who afterwards were called Romans.

Hi et Quirites dicti, quia Quirinus dictus est Romulus, quod semper hasta utebatur, quae Sabinorum lingua curis dicitur.

These are also called Quirites, because Romulus was called Quirinus, since he always used a spear, which in the Sabine language is called curis.

[85] Italus quoque et Sabinus et Sicanus fratres fuerunt, ex quibus nomina populis inposita et regionibus sunt. Nam ab Italo ItaIi, a Sabino Sabini, a Sicano Sicani cognominati sunt, qui et Siculi, id est Sicilienses.

[85] Italus also, and Sabinus and Sicanus, were brothers, from whom names were imposed upon peoples and upon regions. For from Italus, the Italians; from Sabinus, the Sabines; from Sicanus, the Sicani, who are also the Siculi, that is, the Sicilians.

[86] Tusci ItaIiae gens est a frequentia sacrorum et turis vocata, id est APO TOU THUSIAZEIN.

[86] The Tuscans are a people of Italy, called from the frequency of sacra and of incense, that is, from “to sacrifice.”

[87] Vmbri Italiae gens, sed Gallorum veterum propago, qui Appenninum montem incolunt; de quibus historiae perhibent eo quod tempore aquosae cladis imbribus superfuerint, [et ob hoc] OMBRIOUS Graece nominatos.

[87] The Umbri, a people of Italy, but an offshoot of the ancient Gauls, inhabit the Apennine mountain; about whom histories report that, because at the time of a watery calamity they survived the rains, [and on this account] they were named in Greek OMBRIOUS.

[88] Marsi gens Italiae dicta a comite Liberi Marsya, qui usum illis vitium ostendit; et ob hoc illi statuam fecerunt, quam postea Romani victis Marsis tulerunt. Marsos autem Graeci Oscos vocant, quasi OTHSKOUS, quod multas serpentes habeant, et OFIS serpens dicatur. Inlaesos autem esse carminum maleficiis.

[88] The Marsi, a people of Italy, are said to be named from Marsyas, a companion of Liber, who showed them the use of vines; and for this they made him a statue, which afterwards the Romans, when the Marsi had been conquered, carried off. The Greeks, moreover, call the Marsi the Oscans, as it were OTHSKOUS, because they have many serpents, and OFIS is called “serpent.” And they are unharmed by means of the malefic spells of songs.

Inhabitant autem plagam Appennini montis simul cum Vmbris. [Alexander historiographus ait: 'Vulscos quidam appellatos aiunt a Vulsco Antiphatae Laestrygonis filio. Fabius quoque Sicolicis profectos corrupto nomine Vulscos ait dictos']

They inhabit, moreover, the region of the Apennine mountain together with the Umbri. [Alexander the historiographer says: 'Some say they were called the Volsci from Vulsco, son of Antiphates the Laestrygon. Fabius also says that, having set out from the Sicels, with the name corrupted they are called Volsci']

[89] Gothi a Magog filio Iaphet nominati putantur, de similitudine ultimae syllabae, quos veteres magis Getas quam Gothos vocaverunt; gens fortis et potentissima, corporum mole ardua, armorum genere terribilis. De quibus Lucanus (2,54):

[89] The Goths are thought to be named from Magog, the son of Japheth, from the likeness of the last syllable, whom the ancients called the Getae rather than the Goths; a strong and most powerful nation, lofty in the mass of their bodies, terrible by the kind of their arms. Of whom Lucan (2,54):

Hinc Dacus premat inde Getes occurrat Iberis.

Hence let the Dacian press, thence let the Getae meet the Iberians.

[90] Daci autem Gothorum soboles fuerunt, et dictos putant Dacos, quasi Dagos, quia de Gothorum stirpe creati sunt. De quibus ille (Paulinus ad Nicetam 17):

[90] But the Dacians were the offspring of the Goths, and they are thought to have been called Daci, as if “Dagos,” because they were created from the stock of the Goths. About whom that man (Paulinus to Nicetas 17):

Ibis arctoos procul usque Dacos.

You will go far off all the way to the northern Dacians.

[91] Bessi barbari fuerunt, qui a multitudine bovum sic vocati creduntur. De quibus quidam (Paulin. ad Nic. 243):

[91] The Bessi were barbarians, who are believed to have been thus named from a multitude of bovines. Concerning whom a certain one (Paulinus to Nicetas 243):

Qui colit terrae medio vel ille
divitis multo bove pilleatus
accola ripae.

He who cultivates in the midst of the earth, or that
pilleated one, rich with many cattle,
dweller of a wealthy bank.

[92] Gipedes pedestri proelio magis quam equestre sunt usi, ex hac causa vocati.

[92] The Gepids made use of pedestrian battle more than equestrian, and from this cause were named.

[93] Sarmatae patentibus campis armati inequitabant prius quam eos Lentulus Danubio prohiberet; atque inde ob studio armorum Sarmatae nuncupati existimantur.

[93] The Sarmatians, armed, used to ride over the open plains before Lentulus prevented them at the Danube; and from that they are thought to have been denominated “Sarmatians” on account of their zeal for arms.

[94] Lanus fluvius fertur ultra Danubium, a quo Alani dicti sunt, sicut et populi inhabitantes iuxta Lemannum fluvium Alemanni vocantur. De quibus Lucanus (1,396):

[94] The river Lanus is said to lie beyond the Danube, from which the Alans are named, just as the peoples inhabiting next to the river Lemannus are called the Alemanni. Concerning whom Lucan (1,396):

Deseruere cavo tentoria fixa Lemanno.

They deserted the tents fixed by the hollow Lemannus.

[95] Langobardos vulgo fertur nominatos prolixa barba et numquam tonsa.

[95] The Langobards are commonly said to have been named for a long beard, never shorn.

[96] Vindilicus amnis ab extremis Galliae erumpens, iuxta quem fluvium inhabitasse, et ex eo traxisse nomen Vandali perhibentur.

[96] The Vindilicus river, erupting from the farthest parts of Gaul, near which river they are said to have inhabited, and from it to have derived the name Vandals.

[97] Germanicae gentes dictae, quod sint inmania corpora inmanesque nationes saevissimis duratae frigoribus; qui mores ex ipso caeli rigore traxerunt, ferocis animi et semper indomiti, raptu venatuque viventes. Horum plurimae gentes variae armis, discolores habitu, linguis dissonae, et origine vocabulorum incertae; ut Tolosates, Amsivari, Quadi, Tuungri, Marcomanni, Bruteri, Chamavi, Blangiani, Tubantes; quorum inmanitas barbariae etiam in ipsis vocabulis horrorem quendam significat.

[97] The Germanic peoples are so called, because they are of huge bodies and huge nations, hardened by the most savage colds; their mores they have drawn from the very rigor of the sky, of ferocious spirit and always indomitable, living by rapine and by hunting. Of these, very many peoples are diverse in arms, varicolored in dress, dissonant in tongues, and uncertain in the origin of their names; as the Tolosates, Amsivari, Quadi, Tuungri, Marcomanni, Bruteri, Chamavi, Blangiani, Tubantes; the monstrousness of whose barbarity signifies a certain horror even in the very names.

[98] Suevi pars Germanorum fuerunt in fine Septentrionis. De quibus Lucanus (2,51):

[98] The Suevi were a part of the Germans at the end of the Septentrion. Of whom Lucan (2,51):

Fundit ab extremo flavos aquilone Suevos.

It pours forth from the farthest Aquilon the blond Suevi.

Quorum fuisse centum pagos et populos multi prodiderunt. Dicti autem Suevi putantur a monte Suevo, qui ab ortu initium Germaniae facit, cuius loca incoluerunt.

Many have reported that they had a hundred cantons and peoples. Moreover, the Suevi are thought to be named from Mount Suevus, which from the east marks the beginning of Germany, whose regions they inhabited.

[99] Burgundiones quondam, a Romanis subacta interiori Germania, per castrorum limites positi a Tiberio Caesare in magnam coaluerunt gentem, atque ita nomen ex locis sumpserunt; quia crebra per limites habitacula constituta burgos vulgo vocant. Hi postea rebelles Romanis effecti plus quam octoginta milia armatorum ripae Rheni fluminis insederunt, et nomen gentis obtinuerunt.

[99] The Burgundians once, when inner Germany had been subjugated by the Romans, stationed along the boundaries of the camps by Tiberius Caesar, coalesced into a great nation, and thus took their name from the places; because the frequent dwellings established along the boundaries they commonly call burghs. These later, having become rebels to the Romans, more than 80,000 armed men occupied the bank of the river Rhine, and obtained the name of a gens.

[100] Saxonum gens in Oceani litoribus et paludibus inviis sita, virtute atque agilitate habilis. Vnde et appellata, quod sit durum et validissimum genus hominum et praestans ceteris piraticis.

[100] The nation of the Saxons, situated on the shores of the Ocean and in pathless marshes, is able in valor and agility. Whence also it is appellated, because it is a hard and most robust genus of men and preeminent over others in piratical enterprises.

[101] Franci a quodam proprio duce vocari putantur. Alii eos a feritate morum nuncupatos existimant. Sunt enim in illis mores inconditi, naturalis ferocitas animorun.

[101] The Franks are thought to be called after a certain leader of their own. Others think them named from the ferocity of their morals. For there are in them unshaped manners, a natural ferocity of spirits.

[102] Brittones quidam Latine nominatos suspicantur, eo quod bruti sint, gens intra Oceanum interfuso mari quasi extra orbem posita. De quibus Vergilius (Ecl. 1,67):

[102] Some suspect that the Britons were named in Latin, because they are brutes, a people set within the Ocean, with the sea poured in between, as if placed outside the world. About whom Virgil (Ecl. 1,67):

Toto divisos orbe Britannos.

The Britons divided from the whole orb.

[103] Scotti propria lingua nomen habent a picto corpore, eo quod aculeis ferreis cum atramento variarum figurarum stigmate adnotentur.

[103] The Scots have in their own language a name from the painted body, because with iron needles, with ink, they are marked with the stigma of figures of various kinds.

[104] Galli a candore corporis nuncupati sunt. GALA enim Graece lac dicitur. Vnde et Sibylla sic eos appellat, cum ait de his (Virg.

[104] The Gauls are named from the whiteness of the body. For GALA in Greek is called milk. Whence also the Sibyl calls them thus, when she says about them (Virg.

Aen. 8,660):

Aeneid 8,660):

Tunc lactea colla
auro innectuntur.

Then milky necks
are bound with gold.

[105] Secundum diversitatem enim caeli et facies hominum et colores et corporum quantitates et animorum diversitates existunt. Inde Romanos graves, Graecos leves, Afros versipelles, Gallos natura feroces atque acriores ingenio pervidemus, quod natura climatum facit.

[105] For according to the diversity of the climate there exist both the faces of men and the colors and the quantities of bodies and the diversities of minds. Thence we clearly perceive the Romans to be grave, the Greeks light, the Africans versipellous, the Gauls by nature fierce and keener in wit, which the nature of the climes brings about.

[106] Galli autem Senones antiquitus Xenones dicebantur, quod Liberum hospitio recepissent; postea X in S litteram commutata est.

[106] But the Gauls, the Senones, were in antiquity called Xenones, because they had received Liber as a guest in hospitality; afterwards the X was changed into the letter S.

[107] Vacca oppidum fuit iuxta Pyrenaeum, a quo sunt cognominati Vaccei, de quibus creditur dixisse poeta (cf. Virg. Aen. 4,42):

[107] Vacca was a town next to the Pyrenees, from which the Vaccei are cognominated, about whom it is believed the poet said (cf. Virg. Aen. 4,42):

Lateque vagantes Vaccei.

And the Vaccei, wandering far and wide.

Hi Pyrenaei iugis peramplam montis habitant solitudinem. Idem et Vascones, quasi Vaccones, C in S litteram demutata.

These, on the Pyrenean ridges, inhabit a very ample solitude of the mountain. Likewise the Vascones, as if Vaccones, with the letter C changed into S.

[108] Quos Gnaeus Pompeius edomita Hispania et ad triumphum venire festinans de Pyrenaei iugis deposuit et in unum oppidum congregavit. Vnde et Convenarum urbs nomen accepit.

[108] Whom Gnaeus Pompeius, Spain subdued and hastening to come to a triumph, set down from the ridges of the Pyrenees and congregated into one town. Whence also the city of the Convenae received its name.

[109] Hispani ab Ibero amne primum Iberi, postea ab Hispalo Hispani cognominati sunt.

[109] The Spaniards, from the river Iberus, were at first called Iberi; afterwards, from Hispalus, they were surnamed Hispani.

[110] Galleci a candore dicti, unde et Galli. Reliquis enim Hispaniae populis candidiores existunt. Hi Graecam sibi originem adserunt.

[110] The Galleci are said to be named from candor (whiteness), whence also the Gauls. For they are fairer than the other peoples of Spain. These assert for themselves a Greek origin.

Vnde et naturali ingenio callent.

Whence also they are skilled by natural ingenuity.

[111] Siquidem post finem Troiani belli Teucrum morte Aiacis fratris invisum patri Telamoni, dum non reciperetur in regnum, Cyprum concessisse, ibique urbem nomine antiquae patriae Salamina condidisse, inde ad Galleciam profectus et positis sedibus ex loco genti nomen dedisse.

[111] For indeed, after the end of the Trojan War, Teucer, made hateful to his father Telamon by the death of his brother Ajax, since he was not received back into the kingdom, withdrew to Cyprus, and there founded a city named Salamis after his ancient fatherland; thence he set out to Gallaecia and, after establishing settlements, gave the people a name from the place.

[112] Astures gens Hispaniae, vocati eo, quod circa Asturam flumen septi montibus silvisque crebris inhabitent.

[112] The Astures, a people of Hispania, so called because they inhabit around the river Astura, shut in by mountains and by dense forests.

[113] Cantabri gens Hispaniae a vocabulo urbis et Iberi amnis, cui insidunt, appellati. Horum animus pertinax et magis ad latrocinandum et ad bellandum, vel ad perpetiendum verbera semper parati.

[113] The Cantabri, a people of Hispania, are called from the name of a city and of the river Iberus, on which they are seated. Their spirit is pertinacious, and they are always readier for brigandage and for warring, or even for enduring blows.

[114] Celtiberi ex Gallis Celticis fuerunt, quorum ex nomine appellata est regio Celtiberia. Nam ex flumine Hispaniae Ibero, ubi considerunt, et ex Gallis, qui Celtici dicebantur, mixto utroque vocabulo Celtiberi nuncupati sunt.

[114] The Celtiberians were from the Celtic Gauls, and from their name the region Celtiberia was named. For from the river of Spain, the Iberus, where they settled, and from the Gauls who were called Celtici, with both terms mixed they were named Celtiberians.

[115] Afri appellati ab uno ex posteris Abrahae, qui vocabatur Afer, qui dicitur duxisse adversus Libyam exercitum, et ibi victis hostibus considisse, eiusque posteros ex nomine atavi et Afros et Africam nuncupasse.

[115] The Afri were named after one of the descendants of Abraham, who was called Afer, who is said to have led an army against Libya, and there, the enemies having been conquered, to have settled; and that his descendants, from the name of their forefather, denominated both the Afri and Africa.

[116] Poeni autem Carthaginenses sunt a Phoenicibus nuncupati, qui cum Didone profecti sunt.

[116] The Punics, however, are Carthaginians, named from the Phoenicians, who set out with Dido.

[117] Tyrios vero a Tyria urbe Phoenicum nominatos, de qua profecti sunt et in Africae litus venerunt.

[117] The Tyrians, indeed, were named from the Tyrian city of the Phoenicians, from which they set out and came to the shore of Africa.

[118] Getuli Getae dicuntur fuisse, qui ingenti agmine a locis suis navibus conscendentes, loca Syrtium in Libya occupaverunt, et quia ex Getis venerant, derivato nomine Getuli cognominati sunt. Vnde et opinio est apud Gothos ab antiqua cognatione Mauros consanguinitate propinquos sibi vocare.

[118] The Getuli are said to have been Getae, who, in a huge host, embarking on ships from their own places, occupied the regions of the Syrtes in Libya; and because they had come from the Getae, with the name derived, they were cognominated Getuli. Whence also there is an opinion among the Goths that, from ancient cognation, they call the Moors kinsmen by consanguinity to themselves.

[119] Africam autem initio habuere Libyes, deinde Afri, post haec Getuli, postremum Mauri et Numides.

[119] Africa, however, at the beginning was held by the Libyans, then by the Afri, after these the Getuli, and lastly the Mauri and the Numidians.

[120] Mauri et Numidae, ut Afri putant, sic sumpserunt exordium et vocabulum. Nam postquam in Hispania Hercules interiit, et exercitus eius conpositus ex variis gentibus, amisso duce, passim sibi sedes quaerebant, ex eo numero Medi et Persae et Armenii navibus in Africam transvecti proxima mari loca occupavere.

[120] The Moors and the Numidians, as the Africans suppose, thus took their beginning and their appellation. For after Hercules perished in Spain, and his army, composed of various peoples, with their leader lost, were everywhere seeking settlements for themselves, from that number the Medes and the Persians and the Armenians, carried across by ships into Africa, occupied the places nearest to the sea.

[121] Sed Persae, dum materiam in agris pro construendis domiciliis non invenirent, et ignara lingua commercium prohiberet, per patentes agros et diversas solitudines vagabantur, et a pabulationibus vagabundis semetipsos propria lingua Numides appellaverunt, id est sine oppido vagos et errantes.

[121] But the Persians, since they did not find material in the fields for constructing domiciles, and an unknown language hindered commerce, wandered through open fields and various solitudes, and from vagrant foragings they called themselves, in their own tongue, Numidae, that is, townless vagabonds and wanderers.

[122] Medi autem cum Libyis se miscuerunt, qui proxima Hispania inhabitabant; quorum nomen paulatim Libyes corrupere, barbara lingua Mauros propter Medos appellantes, licet Mauri ob colorem a Graecis vocentur. Graeci enim nigrum MAURON vocant. Aestifero quippe calore afflati speciem atri coloris ducunt.

[122] But the Medes mingled with the Libyans, who lived nearest to Spain; whose name the Libyans gradually corrupted, in their barbarian tongue calling them Mauri on account of the Medes, although the Mauri are called so by the Greeks because of their color. For the Greeks call black MAURON. Indeed, being suffused by summer-bearing heat, they take on the appearance of a dark hue.

[123] Massylia civitas Africae est, non longe ab Atlante et hortis Hesperidum; a qua civitate Massyli vocati sunt, quos nos corrupte Massulos vocamus, de quibus Vergilius (Aen. 4,483):

[123] Massylia is a city of Africa, not far from Atlas and the gardens of the Hesperides; from which city the Massyli are named, whom we, corruptly, call Massulos, about whom Virgil (Aen. 4,483):

Hic mihi Massylae gentis monstrata sacerdos.

Here to me a priestess of the Massylian people was shown.

[124] Gaulalum gentes sunt a meridie usque Oceanum Hesperium pervagantes. His nomen Gauloe insula dedit, quae est iuxta Aethiopiam, ubi nec serpens nascitur neque vivit.

[124] The peoples of the Gaulali roam from the south up to the Hesperian Ocean. To these the island Gauloe gave the name, which is next to Ethiopia, where neither serpent is born nor lives.

[125] Garamantes populi Africae prope Cyrenas inhabitantes, a Garamante rege Apollinis filio nominati, qui ibi ex suo nomine Garama oppidum condidit. Sunt autem proximi gentibus Aethiopum. De quibus Vergilius (Ecl. 8,44):

[125] The Garamantes, a people of Africa inhabiting near Cyrene, are named from King Garamantes, son of Apollo, who there, from his own name, founded the town Garama. They are, moreover, the nearest to the peoples of the Ethiopians. About whom Virgil (Ecl. 8,44):

Extremi Garamantes.

The farthest Garamantes.

Extremi autem, quia saevi et a consortio humanitatis remoti. Hesperii vero sunt, qui circa Hispaniam conmorantur.

But “the farthest,” because they are savage and removed from the consortium of humanity. The Hesperians, indeed, are those who dwell around Spain.

[126] Nam Hispania Hesperia.

[126] For Hispania is Hesperia.

[127] Aethiopes dicti a filio Cham, qui vocatus est Chus, ex quo originem trahunt. Chus enim Hebraica lingua Aethiops interpretatur.

[127] Ethiopians are said to be named from the son of Ham, who was called Chus, from whom they draw their origin. For “Chus” in the Hebraic tongue is interpreted “Ethiopian.”

[128] Hi quondam ab Indo flumine consurgentes, iuxta Aegyptum inter Nilum et Oceanum, in meridie sub ipsa solis vicinitate insiderunt, quorum tres sunt populi: Hesperi, Garamantes et Indi. Hesperi sunt occidentis, Garamantes Tripolis, Indi orientis.

[128] These, once arising from the river Indus, settled near Egypt, between the Nile and the Ocean, in the south under the very neighborhood of the sun; of whom there are three peoples: the Hesperi, the Garamantes, and the Indians. The Hesperi are of the Occident, the Garamantes of Tripolis, the Indians of the Orient.

[129] Trochoditae gens Aethiopum, ideo nuncupati, quod tanta celeritate pollent ut feras cursu pedum adsequantur.

[129] The Trochoditae, a people of the Ethiopians, are therefore named because they excel in such celerity that they overtake wild beasts by the running of their feet.

[130] Pamphagi, et hi in Aethiopia sunt: quibus esca est quidquid mandi potest et omnia fortuitu gignentia; unde et appellati.

[130] Pamphagi, and these are in Aethiopia: whose food is whatever can be masticated and all things generated by fortune; whence also they are so appellated.

[131] Icthyophagi, quod venando in mari valeant, et piscibus tantum alantur. Hi post Indos montanas regiones tenent, quos subactos Alexander Magnus piscibus vesci prohibuit.

[131] The Ichthyophagi, because they are proficient at hunting in the sea, and are nourished only by fishes. They, beyond the Indians, hold mountainous regions, whom, once subdued, Alexander the Great forbade to eat fish.

[132] Anthropophagi gens asperrima sub regione Siricum sita, qui quia humanis carnibus vescuntur, ideo anthropophagi nominantur.

[132] Anthropophagi, a most harsh tribe situated under the region of the Sirici, who, because they feed on human flesh, are therefore named anthropophagi.

Itaque sicut his, ita et ceteris gentibus per saecula aut a regibus, aut a locis, aut a moribus, aut ex quibuslibet aliis causis inmutata vocabula sunt, ita ut prima origo nominis eorum temporum vetustate non pateat.

Therefore, just as for these, so also for the other peoples, through the ages either by kings, or by places, or by mores, or by any other causes whatsoever, their appellations have been altered, such that the first origin of their name is not manifest by the antiquity of those times.

[133] Iam vero hi qui Antipodae dicuntur, eo quod contrarii esse vestigiis nostris putantur, ut quasi sub terris positi adversa pedibus nostris calcent vestigia, nulla ratione credendum est, quia nec soliditas patitur, nec centrum terrae; sed neque hoc ulla historiae cognitione firmatur, sed hoc poetae quasi ratiocinando coniectant.

[133] Now indeed those who are called the Antipodes, on the ground that they are thought to be contrary to our footsteps, as if, placed under the earth, they tread footprints opposed to our feet, are by no rational account to be believed, since neither does the solidity permit it, nor the earth’s center; nor is this established by any cognition of history, but poets conjecture this, as it were by ratiocination.

[134] Titanas autem quosdam in Graecia ferunt fuisse robustos et excellentes viribus populos, quos ferunt fabulae ab irata contra deos terra ad eius ultionem creatos.

[134] But they say that certain Titans in Greece were robust and excellent-in-strength peoples, whom the fables report to have been created by the earth, angered against the gods, for her vengeance.

[135] Vnde et Titanes dicti sunt APO TES TISEOS, id est ab ultione, quod quasi ulciscendae matris Terrae causa in deos armati existerent, quos fabulae a Iove bello fuisse superatos atque extinctos fingunt, propter quod e caelo iactis fulminibus interierunt.

[135] Whence also the Titans are said to be named APO TES TISEOS, that is, from retribution, because, as if for the cause of avenging Mother Earth, they stood armed against the gods; which the fables feign to have been overcome and extinguished by Jove in war, on account of which, thunderbolts having been hurled from heaven, they perished.

III. DE REGNIS MILITIAEQVE VOCABVLIS.

3. ON THE VOCABULARY OF KINGDOMS AND OF MILITARY SERVICE.

[1] Regnum a regibus dictum. Nam sicut reges a regendo vocati, ita regnum a regibus.

[1] The kingdom is named from kings. For just as kings are called from ruling, so the kingdom is from kings.

[2] Regnum universae nationes suis quaeque temporibus habuerunt, ut Assyrii, Medi, Persae, Aegyptii, Graeci, quorum vices sors temporum ita volutavit ut alterum ab altero solveretur. Inter omnia autem regna terrarum duo regna ceteris gloriosa traduntur: Assyriorum primum, deinde Romanorum, ut temporibus, et locis inter se ordinata atque distincta.

[2] Kingship all nations have had, each in its own times, as the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, whose vicissitudes the lot of times has so rolled that the one was loosed from the other. Among all the kingdoms of the earth, however, two kingdoms are handed down as glorious above the rest: first that of the Assyrians, then that of the Romans, as, by times, and by places, ordered and distinguished among themselves.

[3] Nam sicut illud prius et hoc posterius, ita illud in oriente, hoc in occidente exortum est: denique in illius fine huius initium confestim fuit. Regna cetera ceterique reges velut adpendices istorum habentur.

[3] For just as that was earlier and this later, so that arose in the east, this in the west: indeed, at the end of that, the beginning of this was at once. The other kingdoms and the other kings are regarded as appendices of these.

[4] Reges a regendo vocati. Sicut enim sacerdos a sacrificando, ita et rex a regendo. Non autem regit, qui non corrigit.

[4] Kings are called from ruling. For just as a priest is from sacrificing, so also a king is from ruling. However, he does not rule who does not correct.

Recte igitur faciendo regis nomen tenetur, peccando amittitur. Vnde et apud veteres tale erat proverbium: 'Rex eris, si recte facias: si non facias, non eris.'

Therefore by doing rightly the name of king is held; by sinning it is lost. Whence also among the ancients there was such a proverb: 'You will be king, if you do rightly; if you do not, you will not be.'

[5] Regiae virtutes praecipuae duae: iustitia et pietas. Plus autem in regibus laudatur pietas; nam iustitia per se severa est.

[5] The royal virtues are chiefly two: justice and piety. But piety is more praised in kings; for justice is in itself severe.

[6] Consules appellati a consulendo, sicut reges a regendo, sicut leges a legendo. Nam cum Romani regum superbam dominationem non ferrent, annua imperia binosque consules sibi fecerunt. Nam fastum regium non benivolentia consulentis, sed superbia dominantis erat.

[6] Consuls are called from consulting, just as kings from ruling, and laws from reading. For when the Romans could not bear the proud domination of kings, they established for themselves annual powers and two consuls. For the royal haughtiness was not the benevolence of one consulting, but the arrogance of one dominating.

Hinc igitur consules appellati, vel a consulendo civibus, vel a regendo cuncta consilio.

Hence, therefore, they were called consuls, either from consulting with the citizens, or from ruling all things by counsel.

[7] Quos tamen ideo mutandos per annos singulos elegerunt, ut nec insolens diu maneret, et moderatior cito succurreret. Inde autem duo pares, quia unus rem civilem, alter rem militarem administrabant. Regnaverunt autem annis quadringentis sexaginta septem.

[7] Yet they chose them to be changed every single year for this reason: that neither an insolent man should remain for long, and that a more moderate one might quickly come to the rescue. And from then, two equals, because one administered the civil matter, the other the military matter. They reigned for 467 years.

[8] Proconsules suffecti erant consulibus, et dicti proconsules eo quod vicem consulis fungerentur, sicut procurator curatori, id est actori.

[8] Proconsuls were appointed as substitutes for the consuls, and were called proconsuls because they performed the role of the consul, just as a procurator for a curator, that is, an actor/agent.

[9] Exconsules autem dicti, quod iam a consulatu exierint, sive discesserint peracto vicis suae anno.

[9] Ex-consuls, moreover, are so called, because they have already gone out from the consulate, or have departed, their year of their turn completed.

[10] Dictatores quinto anno post reges expulsos Romani sibi creaverunt, dum gener Tarquinii ad iniuriam soceri vindicandam ingentem adversus Romam collegisset exercitum.

[10] The Romans created dictators for themselves in the fifth year after the kings had been expelled, when the son-in-law of Tarquin, to avenge the injury of his father-in-law, had gathered a huge army against Rome.

[11] Hi quinquennii temporis imperio utebantur. Plus enim erant honore quam consules, qui annuas potestates tenebant. Et dicti dictatores, quasi principes et praeceptores.

[11] These men exercised the imperium for a period of five years. For they were greater in honor than the consuls, who held annual powers. And they were called dictators, as if princes and preceptors.

Vnde et magistri populi nominabantur. Vnde et edicta dicuntur.

Whence also they were called masters of the people. Whence also edicts are so called.

[12] Caesarum nomen a Iulio coepit, qui bello civili commoto primus Romanorum singularem optinuit principatum. Caesar autem dictus, quod caeso mortuae matris utero prolatus eductusque fuerit, vel quia cum caesarie natus sit. A quo et imperatores sequentes Caesares dicti, eo quod comati essent.

[12] The name of the Caesars began from Julius, who, with the civil war set in motion, was the first of the Romans to obtain a singular principate. But he was called Caesar because, the womb of his dead mother having been cut, he was brought forth and delivered; or because he was born with a caesaries (a full head of hair). From him also the following emperors were called Caesars, for the reason that they were long-haired.

Qui enim execto utero eximebantur, Caesones et Caesares appellabantur.

For those who were extracted from a cut-open womb were called Caesones and Caesars.

[13] Iulius autem dictus, quia ab Iulo Aeneae filio originem duxit, ut confirmat Vergilius (Aen. 1,288):

[13] He was called Julius, moreover, because he drew his origin from Iulus, the son of Aeneas, as Vergil confirms (Aen. 1,288):

Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.

Julius, a name descended from great Iulus.

[14] Imperatorum autem nomen apud Romanos eorum tantum prius fuit apud quos summa rei militaris consisteret, et ideo imperatores dicti ab imperando exercitui: sed dum diu duces titulis imperatoriis fungerentur, senatus censuit ut Augusti Caesaris hoc tantum nomen esset, eoque is distingueretur a ceteris gentium regibus; quod et sequentes Caesares hactenus usurpaverunt.

[14] But the name of Imperators among the Romans was formerly only for those in whom the highest control of the military affair resided, and therefore they were called imperators from commanding the army; but while for a long time leaders were functioning under imperial titles, the Senate decreed that this name should belong to Augustus Caesar alone, and that by it he should be distinguished from the other kings of the nations; which the following Caesars have up to now also usurped.

[15] Solet enim fieri ut primi regis nomen etiam reliqui possideant, sicut apud Albanos ex Silvii nomine omnes reges Albanorum Silviii appellati sunt; sicut apud Persas Arsacidae: apud Aegyptios Ptolomei; apud Athenienses Cecropidae.

[15] For it is wont to happen that the name of the first king is also possessed by the rest, just as among the Albans, from the name of Silvius, all the kings of the Albans were called Silvii; just as among the Persians, the Arsacids; among the Egyptians, the Ptolemies; among the Athenians, the Cecropids.

[16] Augustus ideo apud Romanos nomen imperii est, eo quod olim augerent rempublicam amplificando. Quod nomen primitus senatus Octavio Caesari tradidit, ut quia auxerat terras, ipso nomine et titulo consecraretur.

[16] "Augustus" is therefore among the Romans the name of the imperium, because in former times they used to augment the Republic by amplifying it. Which name the Senate first handed over to Octavius Caesar, so that, since he had increased the lands, he might be consecrated by the very name and title.

[17] Dum autem idem Octavianus iam Caesar et imperator appellaretur, vel Augustus, postea vero dum Iudos spectaret, et pronuntiatum esset illi a populo ut vocaretur et Dominus, statim manu vultuque averso indecoras adulationes repressit et Domini appellationem ut homo declinavit, atque insequenti die omnem populum gravissimo edicto corripuit, Dominumque se post haec appellari ne a liberis quidem suis permisit. Fuit autem filius A[c]tiae, quae nata est de sorore Iulii Caesaris.

[17] While moreover this same Octavian was already being called Caesar and imperator, or Augustus, but later, while he was watching the games, and it had been proclaimed to him by the people that he should be called also “Lord,” at once, with hand and face turned away, he repressed the unseemly adulations and, as a man, declined the appellation of “Lord,” and on the following day he rebuked the whole populace with a most severe edict, and after this he did not permit himself to be called “Lord” not even by his own children. He was, moreover, the son of A[c]tia, who was born from the sister of Julius Caesar.

[18] Reges autem ob hanc causam apud Graecos BASILEIS vocantur, quod tamquam bases populum sustinent. Vnde et bases coronas habent. Quanto enim quisque magis praeponitur, tanto amplius pondere laborum gravatur.

[18] Kings, moreover, for this cause among the Greeks are called BASILEIS, because, like bases, they sustain the people. Whence also bases have crowns. For the more each person is preeminent, the more he is burdened with the weight of labors.

[19] Tyranni Graece dicuntur. Idem Latine et reges. Nam apud veteres inter regem et tyrannum nulla discretio erat, ut (Virg.

[19] “Tyrants” are so called in Greek. The same in Latin, too, are “kings.” For among the ancients there was no distinction between a king and a tyrant, as (Virg.

Aen. 7,266):

Aeneid 7, 266):

Pars mihi pacis erit dextram tetigisse tyranni.

A part of peace for me will be to have touched the tyrant's right hand.

Fortes enim reges tyranni vocabantur. Nam tiro fortis. De qualibus Dominus loquitur dicens (Proverb.

For strong kings were called tyrants. For tyro is strong. About such the Lord speaks, saying (Proverbs.

8,15): 'Per me reges regnant et tyranni per me tenent terram.'

8,15): 'Through me kings reign, and tyrants through me hold the land.'

[20] Iam postea in usum accidit tyrannos vocari pessimos atque inprobos reges, luxuriosae dominationis cupiditatem et crudelissimam dominationem in populis exercentes.

[20] Already afterwards it came into use that those kings who are most wicked and marked by improbity be called tyrants, exercising a cupidity for luxurious domination and the most cruel domination over the peoples.

[21] Princeps et dignitatis modo significatur et ordinis, sicut est illud Vergilianum (Aen. 9,535):

[21] Princeps is signified both in respect of dignity and of order, as is that Virgilian line (Aeneid 9, 535):

Princeps ardentem coniecit lampada Turnus,

The leader Turnus hurled the blazing torch,

pro primus. Dictus autem princeps a capiendi significatione, quod primus capiat, sicut municeps ab eo quod munia capiat. Dux dictus eo quod sit ductor exercitus.

for ‘first.’ Moreover, princeps is said from the signification of ‘taking,’ because he takes first, just as municeps from the fact that he takes up the munia. Dux is so called because he is the ductor of an army.

[22] Sed non statim, quicumque principes vel duces sunt, etiam reges dici possunt. In bello autem melius ducem nominari quam regem. Nam hoc nomen exprimit in proelio ducentem.

[22] But not straightaway can whoever are princes or dukes also be called kings. In war, moreover, it is better to be named duke than king. For this name expresses one leading in battle.

Vnde et Vergilius (Aen. 10,370):

Whence also Virgil (Aen. 10,370):

Ducis Evandri.

Of the leader Evander.

Sallustius (Hist. 4, frag. 7 M.): 'Quo cupidius in ore ducis se quisque bonum.' Non dixit 'in ore consulis.'

Sallust (Hist. 4, frag. 7 M.): 'The more eagerly each person shows himself good in the leader’s mouth.' He did not say 'in the consul’s mouth.'

[23] Monarchae sunt, qui singularem possident principatum, qualis fuit Alexander apud Graecos, et Iulius apud Romanos. Hinc et monarchia dicitur. MONAS quippe singularitas Graeco nomine, ARCHE principatus est.

[23] Monarchs are those who possess a singular principate, such as Alexander among the Greeks, and Julius among the Romans. Hence too it is called monarchy. MONAS, namely singularity in the Greek name, ARCHE is principate.

[24] Tetrarchae sunt quartam partem regni tenentes: nam TETTARA quattuor sunt; qualis fuit apud Iudaeam Philippus.

[24] Tetrarchs are those holding the fourth part of a kingdom: for TETTARA are four; such a one was Philip in Judea.

[25] Patricii inde vocati sunt, pro eo quod sicut patres filiis, ita provideant reipublicae.

[25] Patricians are hence called, because, just as fathers for sons, so they provide for the republic.

[26] Praefecti dicti, quod praetoria potestate praesint.

[26] Prefects are called thus, because they preside with praetorian power.

[27] Praetores, idem qui et praefecti, quasi praepositores.

[27] Praetors, the same as prefects, as it were prepositors.

[28] Praesides vero dicti, qui alicuius loci tutelam praesidialiter tenent.

[28] Presidents, indeed, are so called, who hold the tutelage of some place in a presidial manner.

[29] Tribuni vocati, quod militibus sive plebibus iura tribuunt.

[29] Tribunes are called, because they distribute rights to the soldiers or to the plebs.

[30] Chiliarchae sunt qui mille praesunt, quos nos millenarios nuncupamus; et est Graecum nomen.

[30] Chiliarchs are those who preside over a thousand, whom we call millenaries; and it is a Greek name.

[31] Centuriones dicti, eo quod centum praesint militibus; sicut quinquagenarii, quia in capite sunt quinquaginta militum; sicut decani, ab eo quod decem militibus praeferuntur.

[31] Centurions are so called, for the reason that they are in command of a hundred soldiers; just as quinquagenaries, because they are at the head of fifty soldiers; just as deans, from the fact that they are set over ten soldiers.

[32] Miles dictus, quia mille erant ante in numero uno, vel quia unus est ex mille electus. Romulus autem primus ex populo milites sumpsit et appellavit. Liber vero primus militiae ordinem docuit.

[32] A soldier is so called, because formerly there were a thousand in a single number, or because he is one chosen out of a thousand. But Romulus was the first to take soldiers from the people and to name them. Liber indeed first taught the order of military service.

[33] Miles aut ordinarius dicitur, aut extraordinarius. Ordinarius est, qui per ordinem militat, nec adhuc aliquem consecutus est gradum honoris. Est enim gregarius, id est humilis militiae.

[33] A soldier is called either ordinary or extraordinary. The ordinary is he who serves according to the order, and has not yet attained any grade of honor. For he is a gregary, that is, of humble soldiery.

Extraordinarius vero, qui ob virtutem promovetur ex ordine.

The extraordinary, however, is he who, on account of valor, is promoted from the ranks.

[34] Emeriti dicuntur veterani solutique militia, qui iam in usu proelii non sunt, et quia mereri militare dicitur, ab stipendiis scilicet quae merentur. Idem et veterani dicuntur, quia iam in usu proelii non sunt, sed post multos militiae labores quietis suffragium consequuntur.

[34] Emeriti are called veterans, released from military service, who now are not in the use of battle; and because “to soldier” is said “to merit,” from the stipends, namely, which they merit. The same are also called veterans, because they are no longer in the use of battle, but after many labors of military service they obtain the privilege (suffrage) of rest.

[35] Equestres milites dicti quod equo sedeant. Item militat ille in equestri ordine.

[35] Equestrian soldiers are so called because they sit on a horse. Likewise, he does military service in the equestrian order.

[36] Tirones dicuntur fortes pueri, qui ad militiam delegantur atque armis gerendis habiles existunt. Hi enim non ex sola professione nativitatis, sed aspectu et valitudine corporis existimantur. Vnde et tirones dicti, quique antequam sacramento probati sint, milites non sunt.

[36] Tyros are called strong youths, who are delegated to military service and prove fit for bearing arms. For these are assessed not from the sole profession of birth, but by the aspect and health of the body. Whence also they are called tyros; and those who, before they have been proved by the sacrament (military oath), are not soldiers.

[37] Romanae autem militiae mos fuit puberes primos exercere armis. Nam sexto decimo anno tirones militabant, quo etiam solo sub custodibus agebant, de quibus Vergilius (Aen. 7,162):

[37] But the custom of the Roman military was to train first those come of age with arms. For in the 16th year recruits served as soldiers, during which year—and only then—they lived under guardians; about whom Vergil (Aen. 7,162):

Et primo flore iuventus.

And youth in its first bloom.

[38] Servos sane numquam militasse constat, nisi servitute deposita, excepto Hannibalis tempore, cum post Cannense proelium in tanta necessitate fuissent Romani, ut ne liberandorum quidem servorum daretur facultas.

[38] It is established that slaves certainly never served as soldiers, unless with servitude set aside, except in the time of Hannibal, when after the battle of Cannae the Romans were in such necessity that not even the faculty for freeing the slaves was afforded.

[39] Desertores vocati eo, quod desertis militaribus officiis evagantur. Hi in alios numeros militiae nomen dare prohibentur, sed si non magni temporis culpam contraxerint, caesi numeris suis restituuntur. Sed et qui deserunt exercitum ad hostes transeuntes et ipsi desertores vocantur.

[39] Deserters are so called because, with their military duties deserted, they wander at large. These are forbidden to give their name into other units of the soldiery; but if they have not contracted a fault of great duration, once chastised they are restored to their own units. But those who forsake the army and pass over to the enemy are themselves also called deserters.

[40] Conscripti milites dicuntur, quia in tabulis conferuntur ab eo qui eos ducturus est, sicut transcripti vocantur cum de alia in aliam legionem transeunt; et inde transcripti, quia nomina dant, ut transcribantur.

[40] They are called conscript soldiers, because they are entered on the tablets by the one who is about to lead them, just as they are called transcribed when they pass from one legion into another; and hence transcribed, because they give their names, in order that they may be transcribed.

[41] Obtiones dicti, quod sint electi. Nam optare eligere est, sicut est illud (Virg. Aen. 3,109):

[41] Optiones are so called because they are chosen. For to opt is to choose, as is that (Virg. Aen. 3,109):

Optavitque locum regno,

And he chose a place for a kingdom,

id est elegit.

that is, he chose.

[42] Excubitores dicuntur, pro eo quod excubias semper agunt. Sunt enim ex numero militum et in porticibus excubant propter regalem custodiam. Excubiae autem diurnae sunt, vigiliae nocturnae.

[42] Excubitors are so called, because they always keep watch. For they are from the number of the soldiers and keep watch in the porticoes for the royal guard. Excubiae are diurnal; vigils nocturnal.

Vnde et vigiles.

Whence also the vigiles.

[43] Velites erant apud Romanos genus militiae, a volitando vocati. Lecti enim agilitate iuvenes cum armis suis post terga equitum consedebant, et mox cum ad hostes ventum esset, equis desiliebant, et continuo pedites ipsi, ex alia parte equitibus, per quos advecti fuerant, dimicantibus, hostem perturbabant. Ab his igitur velitibus elephanti quondam Hannibalis retro acti, cum regi iam a suis non possent, fabrili scalpro inter aures adacto necabantur.

[43] The Velites were among the Romans a kind of soldiery, named from darting about. For young men chosen for agility, with their arms, used to sit behind the backs of the horsemen; and soon, when they came up to the enemy, they leapt down from the horses; and immediately, being themselves on foot, while on the other side the cavalry by whom they had been conveyed were fighting, they would throw the enemy into perturbation. By these Velites, therefore, Hannibal’s elephants were once driven back; when they could no longer be ruled by their own men, with a smith’s chisel driven in between the ears they were killed.

[44] Castra sunt ubi miles steterit. Dicta autem castra quasi casta, vel quod illic castraretur libido. Nam numquam his intererat mulier.

[44] Camps are where the soldier has stood. Moreover, they are called castra as if “chaste” (casta), or because libido is castrated there. For never was a woman present in them.

[45] Militia autem a militibus dicta; aut a multis, quasi multitia, quasi negotium multorum; aut a mole rerum, quasi moletia.

[45] Militia, moreover, is said to be named from milites; or from multi, as though “multitia,” as the business of many; or from the moles of things, as though “moletia.”

[46] Legio sex milium armatorum est, ab electo vocata, quasi lecti, id est armis electi. Proprie autem Macedonum phalanx, Gallorum caterva, nostra legio dicitur.

[46] A legion is of 6,000 armed men, named from “elect,” as though “picked men” (lecti), that is, picked for arms. Properly, however, the Macedonians’ is called a phalanx, the Gauls’ a caterva (troop), ours a legion.

[47] Legio habet sexaginta centurias, manipulos triginta, cohortes duodecim, turmas ducentas.

[47] The legion has sixty centuries, thirty maniples, twelve cohorts, two hundred squadrons.

[48] Centuria est pars exercitus in centenos milites divisa. Vnde et qui his praesunt centuriones dicuntur.

[48] A century is a part of the army divided into hundreds of soldiers. Whence also those who are in charge of them are called centurions.

[49] Subcenturiati vero sunt, non qui in prima, sed qui in secunda centuria sunt, quasi sub prima centuria: tamen structi etiam ipsi et in speculis positi in bello sunt; ut si prima defecerit, isti, quos sub se diximus, laborantibus primis subveniunt. Vnde et ad insidiandum ponitur subcenturiatus, quasi armis dolosis instructus.

[49] The subcenturiati, indeed, are not those who are in the first, but those who are in the second century, as if under the first century; nevertheless they too themselves are drawn up and set on lookouts in war, so that, if the first should fail, these, whom we said to be under it, come to the aid of the first when they are laboring. Whence also for ambushing the subcenturiatus is positioned, as if equipped with deceitful arms.

[50] Manipulus ducentorum est militum. Manipuli autem dicti sunt milites, sive quia bellum primo manu incipiebant, sive quod antequam signa essent, manipulos sibi, id est fasciculos stipulae vel herbae alicuius pro signis faciebant, a quo signo manipulares milites cognominati sunt. De quibus Lucanus (1,296):

[50] A maniple is of two hundred soldiers. And the soldiers were called maniples, either because they used first to begin war with the hand (manus), or because, before there were standards, they made for themselves maniples—that is, little bundles of stubble or of some herb—as standards; from which sign the manipular soldiers have been surnamed. Of whom Lucan (1,296):

Convocat armatos extemplo ad signa maniplos.

He immediately summons the armed maniples to the standards.

[51] Turma triginta equites sunt. Romani enim equites in una tribu trecenti fuerunt. De singulis enim centuriis decem dabantur et fiebant turma.

[51] A turma is thirty horsemen. For the Roman horsemen in one tribe were three hundred. For from each century ten were given, and a turma was formed.

[52] Cohors quingentos milites habet. Tria sunt militiae genera: sacramentum, evocatio, coniuratio.

[52] A cohort has five hundred soldiers. There are three kinds of military service: sacrament, evocation, conjuration.

[53] Sacramentum, in quo post electionem iurat unusquisque miles se non recedere a militia, nisi post conpleta stipendia, id est, militiae tempora; et hi sunt qui habent plenam militiam. Nam viginti et quinque annis tenentur.

[53] The sacrament, in which after election each soldier swears not to withdraw from military service, except after the stipends have been completed—that is, the times of service; and these are those who have full military service. For they are bound for 25 years.

[54] Evocatio, dum ad subitum bellum non solum miles sed et ceteri evocantur. Vnde etiam consul solebat dicere: 'Qui rempublicam salvam esse vult, me sequatur.'

[54] Evocation, when for a sudden war not only the soldier but also the rest are called forth. Whence also the consul used to say: 'Who wishes the republic to be safe, let him follow me.'

[55] Coniuratio, quae fit in tumultu, quando vicinum urbis periculum singulos iurare non patitur, sed repente colligitur multitudo et tumultuosa in ira conflatur. Haec et tumultuatio dicitur.

[55] A conjuration, which takes place in a tumult, when the neighboring peril of the city does not permit individuals to swear one by one, but suddenly a multitude is gathered and is fused together, tumultuous in wrath. This also is called a tumultuation.

[56] In acie autem istae fere formae sunt: exercitus, classis, nodus, cuneus, alae, cornua, agmen; quae formas et nomina ab ipsis rebus, de quibus translata sunt, mutuantur.

[56] In the battle-line, moreover, these are generally the forms: the army, the fleet, the knot, the wedge, the wings, the horns, the marching column; which forms and names are borrowed from the things themselves, from which they are translated.

[57] Acies dicta, quod ferro armata sit et acumine gladiorum.

[57] The battle-line is so called because it is armed with iron and with the acumen (sharpness) of swords.

[58] Exercitus multitudo ex uno genere, ab exercitatione belli vocata.

[58] An army is a multitude of a single kind, called from the exercise of war.

[59] Cuneus est collecta in unum militum multitudo. Vnde propter quod in unum coit, ipsa coitio in unum cuneus nominatus est, quasi couneus, eo quod in unum omnes cogantur.

[59] A wedge is a multitude of soldiers collected into one. Whence, because it comes together into one, this very coition into one has been named a wedge, as if “co‑wedge” (couneus), because all are compelled into one.

[60] Classes dictae propter divisionem exercitus, qui postea manipuli dicti sunt. Vnde et Vergilius (Aen. 2,30): Classibus hic locus, hic acies certare solebant.

[60] Classes were so called on account of the division of the army, which later were called maniples. Whence also Vergil (Aen. 2,30): Here was the place for the fleets, here the battle lines were wont to contend.

[61] Iam postea et classica navium dicta. Nodus proprie est densa peditum multitudo, sicut turma equitum. Nodum autem dictum pro difficultate, quod vix possit resolvi.

[61] And later even the fleets of ships were called classes. A knot is properly a dense multitude of foot-soldiers, just as a turma of horsemen. And “knot” is said on account of difficulty, because it can scarcely be resolved.

Alae in exercitu triginta equites esse dicuntur.

The wings in the army are said to be thirty horsemen.

[62] Alae autem equites ob hoc dicti, quia tegunt pedites alarum vice.

[62] The wings, moreover—that is, the horsemen—are called thus for this reason, because they cover the foot-soldiers in the stead of wings.

[63] Cornua vocantur extremitas exercitus, quod intorta sit.

[63] The horns are called the extremity of the army, because it is twisted.

[64] Agmen dicitur cum exercitus iter facit, ab agendo vocatum, id est eundo. Plautus (Most. 562): 'Quo te agis?' Ipse est enim exercitus ambulans.

[64] A column (agmen) is so called when the army makes a march, called from agendo, that is, from going. Plautus (Most. 562): 'Quo te agis?' For it is the army walking.

Nam agmen dicitur, quod in longitudine directum est, quale solet esse cum exercitus portis procedit. Quidquid fuerit aliud, abusive dicitur.

For a marching column is so called because it is arranged in length, such as it is wont to be when the army proceeds from the gates. Whatever else it may be, it is called so abusively (improperly).

IV. DE CIVIBUS.

4. ON CITIZENS.

[1] De imperiis militiaeque vocabulis ex parte dictum est, deinceps civium nomina summatim subiungimus.

[1] Concerning the commands and the vocabulary of the militia something has been said in part; thereafter we summarily subjoin the names of citizens.

[2] Cives vocati, quod in unum coeuntes vivant, ut vita communis et ornatior fiat et tutior.

[2] Citizens are so named, because, coming together into one, they live, so that life may become more communal and more adorned and safer.

[3] Domus unius familiae habitaculum est, sicut urbs unius populi, sicut orbis domicilium totius generis humani. Est autem domus genus, familia, sive coniunctio viri et uxoris. Incipit autem a duobus, et est nomen Graecum.

[3] A house is the habitation of one family, just as a city is of one people, just as the orb is the dwelling of the whole human race. Moreover, a house is a genus: the family, or the conjunction of man and wife. And it begins from two, and it is a Greek name.

[4] Nam familia est liberi ex liberis legibus suscepti, a femore. Genus autem a gignendo et progenerando dictum, aut a definitione certorum prognatorum, ut nationes, quae propriis cognationibus terminatae gentes appellantur.

[4] For family is the freeborn children, received under lawful statutes from free [parents], from the femur (thigh). Genus, however, is said from generating and progenerating, or from the definition of certain progenitors, as nations, which, bounded by their own cognations, are called gentes.

[5] Populus est humanae multitudinis, iuris consensu et concordi communione sociatus. Populus autem eo distat a plebibus, quod populus universi cives sunt, connumeratis senioribus civitatis. [Plebs autem reliquum vulgus sine senioribus civitatis.]

[5] A people is a multitude of human beings, joined by consensus of law and by concordant communion. The people, however, differs from the plebs in this, that the people are the whole of the citizens, with the elders of the city counted together. [But the plebs is the remaining crowd without the elders of the city.]

[6] Populus ergo tota civitas est; vulgus vero plebs est. Plebs autem dicta a pluralitate; maior est enim numerus minorum quam seniorum. Populus vero SOUCHNAMOIS dicitur, id est SITOASIS . Vnde et populus dictus est.

[6] Therefore the people is the whole city; the common crowd indeed is the plebs. But plebs is said from plurality; for the number of the minors is greater than that of the seniors. The people, however, is called SOUCHNAMOIS , that is SITOASIS . Whence also “people” is said.

Graece autem populus LAOS dicitur, a lapidibus. Vulgus est passim inhabitans multitudo, quasi quisque quo vult.

In Greek, however, the people is called LAOS, from stones. The vulgus is a multitude inhabiting everywhere, as if each wherever he wishes.

[7] Tribus dicuntur tamquam curiae et congregationes distinctae populorum, et vocatae tribus ab eo quod in principio Romani trifarie fuerunt a Romulo dispertiti: in senatoribus, militibus et plebibus. Quae tamen tribus nunc multiplicatae nomen pristinum retinent.

[7] Tribes are called as curiae and as distinct congregations of peoples, and they were called tribes from this: that in the beginning the Romans were divided threefold by Romulus—into senators, soldiers, and plebs. These tribes, however, though now multiplied, retain their former name.

[8] Senatui nomen aetas dedit, quod seniores essent. Alii a sinendo dictos accipiunt senatores. Ipsi enim agendi facultatem dabant.

[8] Age gave the name to the Senate, because they were seniors. Others understand senators to be called from permitting; for they themselves granted the faculty of acting.

[9] Senatus consultus a consulendo et tractando est dictus, quod sic fit, ut consuleat et nocere non possit.

[9] The senatus consultus is called from consulting and treating, because it is thus made, that it consults and cannot harm.

[10] Patres autem, ut Sallustius (Cat. 6) dicit, a curae similitudine vocati sunt. Nam sicut patres filios suos, ita illi rempublicam alebant.

[10] The Fathers, moreover, as Sallust (Cat. 6) says, were named from a likeness of care; for just as fathers nourish their own sons, so they nourished the republic.

[11] Patres conscripti, quia dum Romulus decem curias senatorum elegisset, nomina eorum praesenti populo in tabulas aureas contulit, atque inde patres conscripti vocati.

[11] The Enrolled Fathers, because when Romulus had selected ten curiae of senators, he entered their names on golden tablets with the people present, and from that they were called Enrolled Fathers.

[12] Primi ordinis senatorum dicuntur inlustres, secundi spectabiles, tertii clarissimi. Iam inferius quartum aliquod genus non est. Quamvis autem senatoria quisque origine esset, usque ad legitimos annos eques Romanus erat; deinde accipiebat honorem senatoriae dignitatis.

[12] Senators of the first order are called illustrious, of the second “spectables,” of the third “most famous.” Now, below these, there is no fourth kind. And although anyone might be of senatorial origin, up to the lawful years he was a Roman equestrian; thereafter he received the honor of senatorial dignity.

[13] Censores apud veteres Romanos erant. Est enim nomen censoris dignitas iudicialis. Censere enim iudicare est.

[13] Censors existed among the ancient Romans. For the name of “censor” is a judicial dignity. For to censure is to judge.

Item censores sunt patrimoniorum iudices, a censu aeris appellati.

Likewise, the censors are judges of patrimonies, called from the census of bronze (i.e., money).

[14] Iudices dicti quasi ius dicentes populo, sive quod iure disceptent. Iure autem disputare est iuste iudicare. Non est autem iudex, si non est in eo iustitia.

[14] Judges are called as if “saying the law” to the people, or because they dispute by law. Now to dispute by law is to judge justly. Moreover, he is not a judge, if justice is not in him.

[15] Praesides rectores provinciae sunt, dicti quod praesunt.

[15] Praesides are the rectors of a province, so called because they preside.

[16] Praetores autem quasi praeceptores civitatis et principes. Idem et quaestores quasi quaesitores, eo quod quaestionibus praesunt. Consilium enim et causa apud eos est.

[16] Praetors, moreover, are as it were preceptors of the city and princes. Likewise also quaestors, as it were quaesitors, because they preside over inquiries. For the council and the cause are with them.

[17] Proceres sunt principes civitatis, quasi procedes, quod ante omnes honore praecedant. Vnde et capita trabium, quae eminent extra parietes, proceres dicuntur, eo quod primo procedant.

[17] The proceres are the princes of the city, as if “pro-ceeders,” because they precede all in honor. Whence also the heads of the beams, which project beyond the walls, are called proceres, because they go forth first.

[18] Hinc ad primores facta translatio, quod a cetera multitudine prominent. Tribuni dicti quod plebi vel iura vel opem tribuunt. Constituti sunt autem sexto anno post reges exactos.

[18] Hence a transference was made to the primores, because they stand out from the rest of the multitude. They are called tribunes because they bestow to the plebs either rights or aid. Moreover, they were established in the 6th year after the kings had been driven out.

Dum enim plebs a senatu et consulibus premeretur, tunc ipsa sibi tribunos quasi proprios iudices et defensores creavit, qui eorum libertatem tuerentur, et eos adversus iniuriam nobilitatis defenderent. Vnde et defensores dicti, eo quod plebem sibi commissam contra insolentiam inproborum defendant. At contra nunc quidam eversores, non defensores existunt.

For while the plebs was being pressed by the senate and the consuls, then it created for itself tribunes as if its own judges and defenders, who would guard their liberty and defend them against the injury of the nobility. Whence they are called defenders, because they defend the plebs committed to them against the insolence of the wicked. But on the contrary, now certain men are subverters, not defenders.

[19] Numerarii vocati sunt, quia publicum nummum aerariis inferunt.

[19] They were called Numeraries, because they pay in the public money to the treasuries.

[20] Functi, ab eo quod fungantur officio et honore aliquo dicti. Hinc et defunctos mortuos dicimus, qui conpleverunt vitae officia; nihil enim iam faciunt.

[20] Functi, so called from the fact that they function in some office and honor. Hence also we call the dead defunct, who have completed the offices of life; for they now do nothing.

[21] Municipes sunt in eodem municipio nati, ab officio munerum dicti, eo quod publica munia accipiunt. Munia enim officia sunt. Vnde et inmunes dicuntur, qui nullum gerunt officium.

[21] Municipes are those born in the same municipium, called from the duty of munera, because they accept public munia. For munia are offices. Whence also immunes are so called, who bear no office at all.

[22] Municipales originales cives et in locum officium gerentes.

[22] Municipals: original citizens and those bearing office in the place.

[23] Decuriones dicti, quod sint de ordine curiae. Officium enim curiae administrant. Vnde non est decurio, qui summam non intulit vel curiam participavit.

[23] Decurions are so called, because they are from the order of the curia. For they administer the office of the curia. Whence he is not a decurion who has not brought in the sum or participated in the curia.

[24] Curiales autem idem et decuriones. Et dicti curiales, quia civilia munera procurant et exequuntur.

[24] Curials, moreover, are the same as decurions. And they are called curials, because they procure and execute civil duties.

[25] Principales, magistrati et duumvirales curialium officiorum ordines sunt. Principales dicti, quod primi sint magistratibus.

[25] Principals, magistrates, and duumvirals are orders of the curial offices. They are called principals because they are foremost with the magistrates.

[26] Magistrati vero, quod maiores sunt reliquis officiis. Duumvirales **.

[26] Magistrates indeed, because they are greater than the remaining offices. Duumviral **.

[27] Tabellio vocatus eo quod sit portitor tabellarum. Idem exceptor, idem et scriba publicus, quia ea tantum, quae gestis publicantur, scribit.

[27] He is called a tabellion because he is the porter of tablets/letters. The same man is an exceptor, and likewise a public scribe, because he writes only those things which are made public in the acts.

[28] Burgarii a burgis dicti, quia crebra per limites habitacula constituta burgos vulgo vocant. Vnde et Burgundionum gentis nomen inhaesit, quos quondam subacta Germania Romani per castra disposuerunt, atque ita nomen ex locis sumpserunt.

[28] Burgarii are called from burgi, because the frequent habitations set along the borders they commonly call burgs. Whence also the name of the nation of the Burgundians has adhered, whom once, with Germany subdued, the Romans disposed through the camps, and thus they took the name from the places.

[29] Collegiati dicuntur, quod ex eorum collegio custodiisque deputentur, qui facinus aliquod commiserunt. Est enim sordidissimum genus hominum patre incerto progenitum.

[29] They are called collegiates, because out of their college, as custodians, are deputed those who have committed some crime. For it is a most sordid kind of men, begotten of an uncertain father.

[30] Privati sunt extranei ab officiis publicis. Est enim nomen magistratum habenti contrarium, et dict privati quod sint ab officiis curiae absoluti.

[30] Private persons are outsiders from public offices. For it is a name contrary to one holding a magistracy, and they are called private because they are absolved from the duties of the curia.

[31] Mercennarii sunt qui serviunt accepta mercede. Idem et barones Graeco nomine, quod sint fortes in laboribus. BARUS enim dicitur gravis, quod est fortis.

[31] Mercenaries are those who serve with pay received. Likewise also “barons,” by a Greek name, because they are strong in labors. For BARUS is said “grave” (i.e., heavy), which is “strong.”

Cui contrarius est levis, id est infirmus.

To which the contrary is light, that is, infirm.

[32] Publicani appellantur conductores vectigalium fisci, vel rerum publicarum, sive qui vectigalia publica exigunt, vel qui per negotia saeculi lucra sectantur. Vnde et cognominati sunt.

[32] Publicans are called the contractors (lessees) of the taxes of the fisc, or of commonwealths, whether those who exact public taxes, or those who through worldly business pursue gains. Whence also they are so-named.

[33] Vilicus proprie villae gubernator est. Vnde et a villa vilicus nomen accepit. Interdum autem vilicus non gubernationem villae, sed dispensationem universae domus, Tullio interpretante, significat, quod est universarum possessionum et villarum dispensatorem.

[33] The vilicus is properly the governor of a villa. Whence also from villa the vilicus received his name. Sometimes, however, vilicus signifies, with Tullius interpreting, not the governance of the villa, but the dispensation of the whole house, that is, the dispenser of all possessions and villas.

[34] Actores idem et curatores ab agendo et curando vocati.

[34] Actors likewise and curators are so called from acting and caring.

[35] Procuratores vero, eo quod vice curatoris fungantur, quasi propter curatores, sicut proconsul pro consule.

[35] Procurators, indeed, because they perform in the stead of a curator, as though “for curators,” just as a proconsul is “for a consul.”

[36] Coloni sunt cultores advenae, dicti a cultura agri. Sunt enim aliunde venientes atque alienum agrum locatum colentes, ac debentes conditionem genitali solo propter agri culturam sub dominio possessoris, pro eo quod his locatus est fundus. Coloni autem quattuor modis dicuntur.

[36] The coloni are adventive cultivators, called from the cultivation of the field. For they are people coming from elsewhere and cultivating another’s leased field, and owing their condition to the natal soil on account of the cultivation of the field under the dominion of the possessor, for the reason that an estate has been leased to them. Moreover, coloni are spoken of in four ways.

Nam coloni aut Romani sunt, aut coloni Latini, aut coloni auxiliares, aut coloni ruris privati.

For coloni are either Romans, or Latin coloni, or auxiliary coloni, or coloni of private rural land.

[37] Inquilini vocati quasi incolentes aliena. Non enim habent propriam sedem, sed in terra aliena inhabitant.

[37] Inquilines are so called as if inhabiting another’s property. For they do not have their own proper abode, but inhabit another’s land.

[38] Differt autem inter inquilinum et advenam. Inquilini enim sunt qui emigrant, et non perpetuo permanent. Advenae autem vel incolae adventicii perhibentur, sed permanentes; et inde incolae, quia iam habitatores sunt, ab incolendo.

[38] It differs, moreover, between an inquiline and an advena. For inquilini are those who emigrate, and do not remain perpetually. But advenae, or adventitious incolae, are accounted such, yet as remaining; and hence incolae, because they are now habitators, from inhabiting.

[39] Indigenae sunt inde geniti, et in eodem loco nati, ubi inhabitant.

[39] Indigenous are those born from there, and born in the same place where they inhabit.

[40] Incola autem non indigenam, sed advenam indicat.

[40] However, an inhabitant indicates not an indigene, but an adventive.

[41] Peregrini dicti eo quod ignorantur eorum parentes, a quibus orti existunt. Sunt enim de longinqua regione.

[41] Peregrines are so called on the ground that their parents, from whom they have originated, are unknown. For they are from a far-distant region.

[42] Vrbani vocabantur, qui Romae habitabant. Qui vero in ceteris locis, oppidani. Nam sola urbs Roma, cetera oppida.

[42] Urbanites were called those who lived at Rome. But those in the other places, oppidans. For Rome alone is the City, the rest are towns.

[43] Famuli sunt ex propria servorum familia orti. Servi autem vocabulum inde traxerunt, quod hi, qui iure belli possint occidi a victoribus, cum servabantur, servi fiebant, a servando scilicet servi appellati.

[43] Famuli are those sprung from the proper family of slaves. But the term servi drew its appellation from this: those who by the right of war could be killed by the victors, when they were preserved, became servi—called slaves, namely, from servare, “to save.”

[44] Ancillae a sustentaculo vocatae. AGKON enim Graece cubitus dicitur. Vnde et anconem dicimus.

[44] Handmaids are named from a sustentacle. For AGKON in Greek means “elbow.” Whence also we say “ancon.”

[45] Mancipium est quidquid manu capi subdique potest, ut homo, equus, ovis. Haec enim animalia statim ut nata sunt, mancipium ess putantur. Nam et ea, quae in bestiarum numero sunt, tunc videntur mancipium esse, quando capi sive domari coeperint.

[45] Mancipium is whatever can be taken by hand and subjected, such as a human, a horse, a sheep. For these animals, as soon as they are born, are considered to be mancipium. For even those which are in the number of beasts are then seen to be mancipium, when they have begun to be seized or tamed.

[46] Ingenui dicti, quia in genere habent libertatem, non in facto sicut liberti. Vnde et eos Graeci EUGENEIS vocant, quod sint boni generis.

[46] The freeborn are called ingenui, because they have liberty in their lineage (genus), not in the deed, as freedmen do. Whence also the Greeks call them EUGENEIS, because they are of good genus.

[47] Libertus autem vocatus quasi liberatus. Erat enim prius iugo servitutis addictus. Libertorum autem filii apud antiquos libertini appellabantur, quasi de libertis nati.

[47] A freedman, moreover, is so called as if “liberated.” For previously he was subjected to the yoke of servitude. But the sons of freedmen among the ancients were called libertini, as if born of freedmen.

Nunc vero libertinus aut a liberto factus, aut possessus.

Now indeed, a libertinus is either made by a libertus, or possessed.

[48] Manumissus dicitur quasi manu emissus. Apud veteres enim quotiens manu mittebant, alapa percussos circumagebant, et liberos confirmabant; unde et manumissi dicti, eo quod manu mitterentur.

[48] Manumitted is said as if sent forth by hand. For among the ancients, whenever they sent forth by hand, they would lead around those struck with a slap, and would confirm them as free; whence they were called manumitted, because they were sent forth by hand.

[49] Dediticii primum a deditione sunt nuncupati. Deditio enim dicitur quando se victi aut vincendi hostes victoribus tradunt: quibus haec origo nominis fuit. Dum quondam adversus populum Romanum servi armis sumptis dimicassent, victi se dederunt, conprehensique varia turpitudine affecti sunt.

[49] The Dediticii were at first named from surrender. For “surrender” is said when enemies, conquered or to be conquered, hand themselves over to the victors: for whom this was the origin of the name. When once slaves, having taken up arms, had fought against the Roman people, defeated they surrendered themselves, and, seized, were subjected to various ignominies.

[50] Ex his quidam postea a dominis manumissi, propter suppliciorum notas, quas manifeste perpessi sunt, ad dignitatem civium Romanorum non pervenerunt.

[50] Of these, some later, manumitted by their masters, on account of the marks of punishments which they had manifestly suffered, did not attain to the dignity of Roman citizens.

[51] Latini ante Romam conditam apud Latinos fiebant, numquam per testamentum, sed per epistolam libertatem sumentes. Inde quia per testamentum non fiebant, nec ex testamento aliquid capere, nec suos heredes facere poterant, cives Romani postea sub consulibus per testamenta in urbe Romana effecti sunt.

[51] The Latins, before Rome was founded, were made Latins among the Latins, never by testament, but taking liberty by epistle. Hence, because they were not made by testament, they could neither take anything from a testament nor make their own heirs; later, under the consuls, they were made Roman citizens by testaments in the city of Rome.

[52] Dicti autem cives Romani, quia testamento liberi effecti in numerum Romanorum civium rediguntur. His primum aditus erat in urbe Roma commorari; ceteris autem libertis prohibebatur ne vel in urbe Roma, vel infra septimum ab urbe miliarium commanerent.

[52] They were called Roman citizens, because those made free by a testament are reduced into the number of Roman citizens. To these there was in the first place admission to reside in the city of Rome; but to the other freedmen it was forbidden to remain either in the city of Rome or within the seventh milestone from the city.

V. DE ADFINITATIBVS ET GRADIBVS.

5. ON AFFINITIES AND DEGREES.

[1] Heredis nomen inposuit census aeris. Solvet enim tributum auctoris. In hoc enimvero vocabulo prima successio est hereditatis et generis, ut sunt filii et nepotes.

[1] The census of bronze (money) assigned the name of heir. For he will pay the tribute of the author (i.e., predecessor). In this vocable, moreover, lies the first succession of inheritance and of lineage, as are sons and grandsons.

[2] Proheres est, qui loco heredis fungitur, quasi pro herede. Est enim aut institutus, aut substitutus.

[2] A pro-heir is one who fulfills the place of an heir, as if “for an heir.” For he is either instituted or substituted.

[3] Pater est, a quo initium nascitur generis. Itaque is paterfamilias vocitatur. Pater autem dictus eo quod patratione peracta filium procreet.

[3] The father is he from whom the beginning of the lineage is born. And so he is called paterfamilias. Moreover, he is called “father” because, once the consummation has been accomplished, he begets a son.

Patratio enim est rei veneriae consummatio. Lucretius (4,1129):

For patratio is the consummation of the venereal act. Lucretius (4,1129):

Et bene patra patrum.

And well consummate the fathers’ rite.

[4] Genitores autem a gignendo; et parentes quasi parientes. Idem et creatores.

[4] Genitors, moreover, from begetting; and parents as it were bearers. The same too creators.

[5] Crementum enim est semen masculi, unde animalium et hominum corpora concipiuntur. Hinc creatores parentes dicuntur.

[5] For crementum is the seed of the male, whence the bodies of animals and of men are conceived. Hence parents are called creators.

[6] Mater dicitur, quod exinde efficiatur aliquid. Mater enim quasi materia; nam causa pater est.

[6] She is called mother, because from her something is effected. For mother is as it were matter; for the cause is the father.

[7] Pater familias autem dictus, quod omnibus in familia sua positis servis tamquam pater filiis patria dilectione consulit, servorumque condicionem a filiorum affectu non discernit, sed quasi unum membrum amplectit. Hinc enim exortum est nomen patri familias. Qui autem inique dominantur in servis, hoc se nomine nequaquam reputent appellari.

[7] The pater familias, moreover, is so called because he looks after all the slaves placed in his household with paternal love, as a father for sons, and he does not distinguish the condition of the slaves from the affection owed to sons, but embraces them as if one member. Hence, indeed, the name “pater familias” arose. But those who rule unjustly over slaves should by no means reckon themselves to be called by this name.

[8] Matremfamilias inde vocari, quia per quandam iuris sollemnitatem in familiam transit mariti. Tabulae enim matrimoniales instrumenta emptionis suae sunt. Alias sicut matrona est mater primi pueri, id est quasi mater nati, ita materfamilias illa est quae plures enixa est.

[8] The mother-of-the-household is called so because through a certain solemnity of law she passes into her husband’s family. For the matrimonial tablets are the instruments of her purchase. Otherwise, just as a matron is the mother of the first child—that is, as it were the mother of the born—so the mother-of-the-household is she who has borne several.

Nam familia ex duobus esse incipit.

For the family begins to exist from two.

[9] Avus patris pater est, ab aevo dictus, id est ab antiquitate. Proavus avi pater est, quasi prope avum. Abavus proavi pater [est], iam longe ab avo.

[9] Grandfather (avus) is the father of the father, called from aevum, that is, from antiquity. Great-grandfather (proavus) is the father of the grandfather, as if near to the avus. Great-great-grandfather (abavus) [is] the father of the proavus, now far from the avus.

Atavus abavi pater.

Atavus is the father of the abavus.

[10] Tritavus atavi pater, quasi tetravus, id est quartus super avum. Sed tritavus ultimum cognationis nomen est. Familia enim oritur a patre, terminatur in tritavo.

[10] The tritavus is the father of the atavus, as if a tetravus, that is, the fourth above the grandsire. But tritavus is the ultimate term of kinship. For the familia arises from the father and ends at the tritavus.

[11] Filius et filia a familia dicti sunt; ipsi enim primi in ordine nascentium existunt. Vnde et Cornelia familia stirps ipsa omnis a Cornelio orta. Familia autem a femore.

[11] Son and daughter are said to be named from family; for they themselves are first in the order of those being born. Whence also the Cornelian family, the entire stock itself, has sprung from Cornelius. Family, however, [is] from the femur (thigh).

[12] Femore enim genus et stirps ostenditur. Nam familia pro servis abusive, non proprie dicitur.

[12] For by the thigh the genus and the stirp are shown. For “familia” is said for slaves abusively, not properly.

[13] Stirps ex longa generis significatione vocatur. Gnatus dictus quia generatus. Vnde et per G scribitur.

[13] Stock is called from the extended signification of genus. Gnatus is said so because generated; whence also it is written with a G.

Suboles eo quod substitutio sit generis.

Suboles, because it is a substitution of the genus.

[14] Quadripertitus est autem ordo filiorum, ita: unigenitus, primogenitus, medius, novissimus. Primogenitus, ante quem nullus. Vnigenitus, post quem nullus.

[14] Fourfold, moreover, is the order of sons, thus: only-begotten, firstborn, middle, last-born. Firstborn, before whom there is none. Only-begotten, after whom there is none.

Medius, inter omnes. Novissimus, post omnes. Idem et minimus, a monade.

The middle, among all. The last, after all. The same also the least, from the monad.

Novissimus autem propter quod novus, quia ceteri praecedendo antiquiores existunt.

The last-born, moreover, because he is new, since the others, by preceding, exist as more ancient.

[15] Quattuor etiam modis filii appellantur: natura, imitatione, adoptione, doctrina. Natura, veluti quum dicuntur filii Abrahae Iudaei. Imitatione, ut ipsius Abrahae fidem imitantes ex gentibus, dicente Evangelio (Luc.

[15] Sons are also called in four modes: by nature, by imitation, by adoption, by doctrine. By nature, as when the Jews are called sons of Abraham. By imitation, as those from the nations, imitating the faith of Abraham himself, with the Gospel saying (Luke.

3,8): 'Potens est Deus de lapidibus istis suscitare filios Abrahae'; veluti sicut eosdem Iudaeos Dominus filios esse dicit diaboli; a quo non nati, sed quem fuerant imitati.

(Luke 3:8): 'God is able from these stones to raise up sons of Abraham'; just as likewise the Lord says that these same Jews are sons of the devil; from whom they were not born, but whom they had imitated.

[16] Adoptione quoque, quod humana consuetudine nulli licet nescire, vel sicut nos Deo non natura, sed adoptione dicimus: 'Pater noster, qui es in caelis.' Doctrina, sicut Apostolus filios suos appellat eos quibus Evangelium praedicavit.

[16] By adoption also, which by human custom no one is allowed to be ignorant of, or just as we say to God not by nature but by adoption: 'Our Father, who art in the heavens.' By doctrine, as the Apostle calls his sons those to whom he preached the Gospel.

[17] Filii autem ideo in legibus liberi appellantur, ut isto vocabulo secernantur a servis; quia sicut servus in potestate est domini, sic filius in potestate est patris. Inde etiam filio fit emancipatio, ut sit liber a patre, sicut fit servo manumissio, ut sit liberatus a domino.

[17] Sons, moreover, are therefore in the laws called “freeborn,” so that by this vocable they may be set apart from slaves; because just as a slave is in the power of his master, so a son is in the power of his father. Hence also emancipation is done for a son, that he may be free from the father, just as manumission is done for a slave, that he may be freed from the master.

[18] Item liberi dicti, quia ex libero sunt matrimonio orti. Nam filii ex libero et ancilla servilis condicionis sunt. Semper enim qui nascitur deteriorem parentis statum sumit.

[18] Likewise they are called “liberi” because they are sprung from a free marriage. For children from a free man and a female slave are of servile condition. For the one who is born always assumes the worse status of the parent.

[19] Naturales autem dicuntur ingenuarum concubinarum filii, quos sola natura genuit, non honestas coniugii. Idem et pueri a pube.

[19] But “natural” are called the sons of freeborn concubines, whom nature alone begot, not the honorableness of conjugal marriage. Likewise, “boys” are [so called] from the pubes.

[20] Adoptivus filius est, qui aut patre iusto, aut avo, aut proavo, cuius potestate per mancipationem est traditus in alienam potestatem, qui utriusque fert nomen, ut Fabius Aemilius, vel Scipio Paulinus.

[20] An adoptive son is one who, from a lawful father, or a grandfather, or a great-grandfather, from whose power he has been delivered by mancipation into another’s power, bears the name of both, as Fabius Aemilius, or Scipio Paulinus.

[21] Gemini sunt non duo tantum simul nati, sed etiam plures. De geminis autem uno aborto, alter, qui legitime natus fuerit, Vopiscus nominatur.

[21] Twins are not only two born at the same time, but also more. However, concerning twins, if one has miscarried, the other, who has been born legitimately, is named Vopiscus.

[22] Posthumus vocatur eo quod post humationem patris nascitur, id est post obitum. Iste et defuncti nomen accepit. Sic enim lex voluit, ut qui de defuncto nascitur, defuncti nomine appelletur.

[22] ‘Posthumous’ is so called because he is born after the humation of the father, that is, after his decease. He also received the name of the defunct. For thus the law willed, that he who is born of the defunct be called by the name of the defunct.

[23] Nothus dicitur, qui de patre nobili et de matre ignobili gignitur, sicut ex concubina. Est autem hoc nomen Graecum et in Latinitate deficit.

[23] A nothus is so called, one who is begotten of a noble father and an ignoble mother, as from a concubine. Moreover, this is a Greek name and is deficient in Latinity.

[24] Huic contrarius spurius, qui de matre nobili et patre ignobili nascitur. Item spurius patre incerto, matre vidua genitus, velut tantum spurii filius; quia muliebrem naturam veteres spurium vocabant; velut APO [TOU] SPOROU, hoc est seminis; non patris nomine.

[24] Contrary to this is the spurious one, who is born of a noble mother and an ignoble father. Likewise, spurious is one with an uncertain father, born of a widowed mother, as though merely a son “of seed” (velut tantum spurii filius); for the ancients called the female nature spurious, as from APO [TOU] SPOROU, that is, “of the seed,” not by the father’s name.

[25] Eosdem et Favonios appellabant, quia quaedam animalia Favonio spiritu hausto concipere existimantur. Vnde et hi, qui non sunt de legitimo matrimonio, matrem potius quam patrem sequuntur. Latine autem spurii quasi extra puritatem, id est quasi inmundi.

[25] They also called these same men Favonians, because certain animals are thought to conceive, having drunk in the breath of the Favonius. Whence also these, who are not from legitimate marriage, follow the mother rather than the father. In Latin, moreover, spurii, as if “outside purity,” that is, as if “unclean.”

[26] Nepos est, qui ex filio natus est. Dictus autem nepos quasi natus post. Primum enim filius nascitur, deinde nepos.

[26] A grandson is he who is born from a son. Moreover he is called “nepos” as if “born after.” For first the son is born, then the grandson.

Gradus enim substitutionis est. Hinc et posteritas, quasi postera aetas. Nepos autem utriusque sexus est.

For it is a degree of substitution. Hence also “posterity,” as if “the following age.” But “nepos” is of either sex.

Nam ut neptis dicamus in iure est propter discretionem successionis admissum.

For, in order that we may say "granddaughter," it has been admitted in law on account of the distinction of succession.

[27] Pronepos est, qui ex nepote conceptus natusque est. Et dictus pronepos, quasi natus porro post. Ex hoc quoque gradu incipit vocari et progenies, quasi porro post geniti.

[27] A great-grandson is one who was conceived and born from a grandson. And he is called a great-grandson, as if “born farther after.” From this grade too the term progeny begins to be applied, as if “those begotten farther after.”

Nam filii et nepotes non sunt progenies, quia non est in eis longa posteritas.

For sons and grandsons are not progeny, because there is not in them a long posterity.

[28] Sicut autem inferius longe editi progenies dicuntur, ita superius proavi, atavi qui et progenitores appellantur, quasi porro generantes. Pronepos dictus, quia prope nepotem.

[28] Just as, however, those born far lower are called progeny, so higher up there are great-grandfathers (proavi) and great-great-grandfathers (atavi), who are also called progenitors, as if “begetting farther on.” Pronepos (great-grandson) is so named because he is near to the nepos (grandson).

[29] Abnepos, quia seiungitur a nepote. Est enim inter illum et nepotem pronepos. Adnepos abnepotis filius.

[29] Abnepos, because he is separated from the grandson; for between him and the grandson is the pronepos (great-grandson). Adnepos, the son of the abnepos.

[30] Trinepos adnepotis filius, quia post nepotem quartus in ordine est, quasi tetranepos.

[30] Trinepos, the son of the adnepos, because after the grandson he is fourth in order, as it were a tetranepos.

[31] Minores autem non dicimus, nisi quotiens graduum deficit nomen, ut puta filius, nepos, pronepos, abnepos, adnepos, trinepos. Vbi isti gradus defecerint, merito iam dicimus minores, sicut et maiores dicimus, post patris, avi, proavi, abavi, atavi, tritavique vocabulum.

[31] But we do not say “the minors” except whenever the name of the degrees fails, for instance: filius, nepos, pronepos, abnepos, adnepos, trinepos. Where these degrees have failed, we rightly now say “the minors,” just as we say “the majors” after the vocabulary of pater, avus, proavus, abavus, atavus, and tritavus.

VI. DE AGNATIS ET COGNATIS.

6. ON AGNATES AND COGNATES.

[1] Agnati dicti eo, quod accedant pro natis, dum desunt filii. Qui ideo prius in gente agnoscuntur, quia veniunt per virilis sexus personas, veluti frater eodem patre natus, vel fratris filius neposve ex eo; item patruus.

[1] Agnates are so called because they accede in place of offspring, when sons are lacking. They are therefore first recognized in the gens, because they come through persons of the male sex, as a brother born of the same father, or a brother’s son or a grandson from him; likewise a paternal uncle.

[2] Cognati dicti, quia sunt et ipsi propinquitate cognationis coniuncti. Qui inde post agnatos habentur, quia per feminini sexus personas veniunt, nec sunt agnati, sed alias naturali iure cognati.

[2] “Cognates” are so called, because they too are joined by the propinquity of cognation. Who therefore are held after the agnates, because they come through persons of the female sex, and are not agnates, but otherwise by natural law cognates.

[3] Proximus, propter proximitatem sanguinis appellatus.

[3] The nearest, so called on account of the proximity of blood.

[4] Consanguinei vocati, eo quod ex uno sanguine, id est ex uno patris semine sati sunt. Nam semen viri spuma est sanguinis ad instar aquae in scopulos conlisae, quae spumam candidam facit, vel sicut vinum nigrum, quod in calice agitatum spumam albentem reddit.

[4] Called consanguines, because they are from one blood, that is, are sown from one father’s seed. For a man’s seed is the spume of blood, like water dashed against rocks, which makes a white foam, or like black wine, which, when shaken in a chalice, renders a whitening spume.

[5] Fratres dicti, eo quod sint ex eodem fructu, id est ex eodem semine nati.

[5] Brothers are so called, because they are from the same fruit, that is, born from the same seed.

[6] Germani vero de eadem genetrice manantes; non, ut multi dicunt, de eodem germine, qui tantum fratres vocantur. Ergo fratres ex eodem fructu, germani ex eadem genetrice manantes.

[6] Germani, indeed, are those emanating from the same genetrix; not, as many say, from the same germen, who are only called brothers. Therefore brothers are from the same fruit, germani emanating from the same genetrix.

[7] Vterini vocati, quod sint ex diversis patribus, et uno utero editi. Nam uterus tantum mulieris est.

[7] Called uterine, because they are from diverse fathers and brought forth from one uterus. For the uterus belongs only to the woman.

[8] Quattuor autem modis in Scripturis divinis fratres dici: natura, gente, cognatione, affectu. Natura, ut Esau et Iacob, Andreas et Petrus, Iacobus et Iohannes. Gente, ut omnes Iudaei fratres inter se vocantur in Deuteronomio (15,12): 'Si autem emeris fratrem tuum, qui est Hebraeus.' Et Apostolus (Rom.

[8] However, in four ways in the divine Scriptures brothers are said: by nature, by gens, by cognation, by affection. By nature, as Esau and Jacob, Andrew and Peter, James and John. By gens, as all the Jews are called brothers among themselves in Deuteronomy (15,12): 'But if you buy your brother, who is a Hebrew.' And the Apostle (Rom.

9,3): 'Optabam,' inquit, 'ego Anathema esse a Christo pro fratribus meis, qui sunt cognati mei secundum carnem, qui sunt Israhelitae.'

9,3): 'I was wishing,' he says, 'I myself to be anathema from Christ for my brothers, who are my cognates according to the flesh, who are Israelites.'

[9] Porro cognatione fratres vocantur, qui sunt de una familia, id est patria; quas Latini paternitates interpretantur, cum ex una radice multa generis turba diffunditur. Et in Genesi dixit Abraham ad Loth (13,8): 'Non sit rixa inter me et te et inter pastores tuos et pastores meos, quia omnes fratres nos sumus.' Et certe Loth non erat frater Abrahae, sed filius fratris eius Aram.

[9] Further, by cognation those are called brothers who are from one family, that is, a patria; which the Latins interpret as paternities, when from one root a great multitude of the race is diffused. And in Genesis Abraham said to Lot (13,8): 'Let there be no strife between me and you and between your shepherds and my shepherds, because we all are brothers.' And certainly Lot was not Abraham’s brother, but the son of his brother Aram.

[10] Quarto modo affectu fratres dici, qui in duo scinduntur: spiritale et commune. Spiritale, quo omnes Christiani fratres vocamur, ut (Psalm. 133,1): 'Ecce quam bonum, et quam iucundum habitare fratres in unum.' In commune, cum et omnes homines ex uno patre nati pari inter nos germanitate coniungimur, Scriptura loquente (Isai.

[10] In a fourth way, by affection, those are called brothers, which is split into two: spiritual and common. Spiritual, by which all Christians are called brothers, as (Psalm. 133,1): 'Behold how good, and how pleasant it is for brothers to dwell together into one.' In common, since all men, born from one father, are conjoined among us by equal germanity, Scripture speaking (Isai.

66,5): 'Dicite his qui oderunt vos: Fratres nostri vos estis.'

66,5): 'Say to those who hate you: You are our brothers.'

[11] Germana ita intellegitur ut germanus, eadem genetrice manans.

[11] Germana is thus understood as germanus, issuing from the same genetrix.

[12] Soror autem, ut frater. Nam soror est ex eodem semine dicta, quod sola cum fratribus in sorte agnationis habeatur.

[12] Sister, however, as the brother. For “sister” is called from the same seed, because she alone, together with her brothers, is held in the lot of agnation.

[13] Fratres patrueles dicti, eo quod patres eorum germani fratres inter se fuerunt.

[13] Patruel brothers are so called, because their fathers were german brothers to one another.

[14] Consobrini vero vocati, qui aut ex sorore et fratre, aut ex duabus sororibus sunt nati, quasi consororini. Fratrueles autem materterae filii sunt.

[14] Consobrini, indeed, are called those who are born either from a sister and a brother, or from two sisters, as if “co-sororal.” Fratrueles, moreover, are the maternal aunt’s sons.

[15] Sobrini consobrinorum filii.

[15] Sobrini are the sons of consobrini.

[16] Tius Graecum est. Patruus frater patris est, quasi pater alius. Vnde et moriente patre pupillum prior patruus suscipit, et quasi filium lege tuetur.

[16] Tius is Greek. A patruus is the father’s brother, as if another father. Whence also, with the father dying, the patruus first takes up the ward, and by law he protects him as if a son.

[17] Avunculus est matris frater, cuius nomen formam diminutivi habere videtur, quia ab avo venire monstratur.

[17] The avuncle is the mother’s brother, whose name seems to have the form of a diminutive, because it is shown to come from the grandfather.

[18] Amita est soror patris quasi alia mater. Matertera est soror matris, quasi mater altera.

[18] Amita is the father’s sister, as if another mother. Matertera is the mother’s sister, as if a second mother.

[19] Socer est, qui filiam dedit. Gener est, qui filiam duxit. Gener autem dictus, quod adsciscatur ad augendum genus.

[19] A father-in-law is he who has given a daughter. A son-in-law is he who has taken a daughter in marriage. Moreover, the son-in-law is so called because he is adscited to augment the genus (family line).

Socer autem et socrus, quod generum vel nurum sibi adsocient.

But the father-in-law and the mother-in-law [are so called], because they associate to themselves a son-in-law or a daughter-in-law.

[20] Vitricus [est], qui uxorem ex alio viro filium aut filiam habentem duxit. Et dictus vitricus quasi novitricus, quod a matre superducatur novus.

[20] A stepfather [is] he who has married a wife having a son or a daughter from another man. And he is called vitricus as if novitricus, because he is superinduced as new over the mother.

[21] Privignus est qui ex alio patre natus est; et privignus dici putatur quasi privigenus, quia prius genitus. Vnde et vulgo antenatus.

[21] A stepson is one who has been born from another father; and privignus is thought to be said as if privigenus, because earlier begotten. Whence also, in common speech, antenatus.

[22] Vocabula a gente haec videntur declinata: genitor, genetrix, agnati, agnatae, cognati, cognatae, progenitores, progenetrices, germani, germanae.

[22] These terms seem to be derived from the gens: genitor, genetrix, agnates, agnatae, cognates, cognatae, progenitors, progenetrices, germani, germanae.

[23] ITEM DE PRAEDICTIS AFFINITATIBVS. Auctor mei generis mihi pater est, ego illi filius aut filia. Patris mei pater mihi avus est, ego illi nepos, aut neptis.

[23] LIKEWISE CONCERNING THE AFORESAID AFFINITIES. The author of my lineage is to me father; I to him am son or daughter. My father’s father is to me grandfather; I to him am grandson or granddaughter.

Patris mei avus mihi proavus est, ego illi pronepos, aut proneptis. Patris mei proavus mihi abavus est, ego illi abnepos, aut abneptis. Patris mei abavus mihi atavus est, ego illi adnepos, aut adneptis.

My father's grandfather is to me a great-grandfather, I to him a great-grandson, or a great-granddaughter. My father's great-grandfather is to me a great-great-grandfather, I to him a great-great-grandson, or a great-great-granddaughter. My father's great-great-grandfather is to me a great-great-great-grandfather, I to him a great-great-great-grandson, or a great-great-great-granddaughter.

Patris mei atavus mihi tritavus est, ego illi trinepos, aut trineptis.

My father's great-great-great-grandfather is to me a great-great-great-great-grandfather, I to him a great-great-great-great-grandson, or a great-great-great-great-granddaughter.

[24] DE PATRVIS. Patris mei frater mihi patruus est, ego illi fratris filius, aut filia. Patrui mei pater mihi pater magnus est, ego illi filii, aut filiae fratris filius, aut filia.

[24] ON PATERNAL UNCLES. My father’s brother is my paternal uncle; I am to him the brother’s son, or daughter. My paternal uncle’s father is to me the grandfather, I am to him the brother’s son, or daughter, of the son, or of the daughter.

Patrui mei avus mihi propatruus est, ego illi filii, aut filiae aut nepos, aut neptis. Patrui mei proavus mihi adpatruus est, ego illi nepotis, aut neptis filius, aut filia.

My paternal uncle’s grandfather is to me a great-uncle; I to him am a son, or a daughter, or a grandson, or a granddaughter. My paternal uncle’s great-grandfather is to me a great-great-uncle; I to him am the son, or the daughter, of a grandson, or of a granddaughter.

[25] DE AMITIS. Patris mei soror mihi amita est, ego illi fratris filius, aut filia. Amitae meae mater mihi amita magna est, ego illi filiae fratris filius, aut filia.

[25] ON PATERNAL AUNTS. My father's sister is to me a paternal aunt, I to her am the brother's son, or daughter. The mother of my paternal aunt is to me a great-aunt, I to her am the brother's daughter's son, or daughter.

Amitae meae avia mihi proamita est, ego illi nepotis aut neptis filius, aut filia. Amitae meae proavia mihi abamita est, ego illi nepotis, aut neptis filius, aut filia.

My aunt’s grandmother is to me a great-aunt; I am to her the son of a grandson or granddaughter, or the daughter. My aunt’s great-grandmother is to me a great-great-aunt; I am to her the son of a grandson, or of a granddaughter, or the daughter.

[26] DE AVVNCVLIS. Matris meae frater mihi avunculus est, ego illi sororis filius, aut filia. Avunculi mei pater mihi avunculus magnus est, ego illi filii sororis filius, aut filia.

[26] ON AVUNCLES. My mother’s brother is to me an avuncle; I am to him the sister’s son, or daughter. The father of my avuncle is to me a great-avuncle; I am to him the son, or daughter, of his sister’s son.

Avunculi mei avus mihi proavunculus est, ego illi filii nepos, aut neptis. Avunculi mei proavus mihi abavunculus est, ego illi neptis filius, aut filia.

My maternal uncle’s grandfather is to me a great-uncle, I to him a son’s grandson, or granddaughter. My maternal uncle’s great-grandfather is to me a great-great-uncle, I to him a granddaughter’s son, or daughter.

[27] DE MATERTERIS. Matris meae soror mihi matertera est, ego illi sororis filius, aut filia. Materterae meae soror mihi matertera magna est, ego illi sororis nepos, aut neptis.

[27] ON MATERNAL AUNTS. My mother’s sister is my maternal aunt, I to her am her sister’s son, or daughter. The sister of my maternal aunt is to me a great maternal aunt, I to her am the sister’s grandson, or granddaughter.

Aviae meae soror mihi abmatertera est, ego illi pronepos sororis, aut pronepotis. Proaviae meae soror mihi promatertera est, ego illi neptis filius, aut filia.

My grandmother’s sister is to me an abmatertera, I to her a great-grandson of her sister, or a great-granddaughter. My great-grandmother’s sister is to me a promatertera, I to her a granddaughter’s son, or daughter.

[28] Stemmata dicuntur ramusculi, quos advocati faciunt in genere, cum gradus cognationum partiuntur, ut puta ille filius, ille pater, ille avus, ille agnatus, et ceteri, quorum figurae haec:

[28] Stemmata are called the little branches, which advocates make in the lineage, when they apportion the degrees of cognation, as, for instance: that one a son, that one a father, that one a grandfather, that one an agnate, and the rest, whose figures are these:

[STEMMA 1]

[PEDIGREE 1]

[STEMMA 2]

[PEDIGREE 2]

[29] Haec consanguinitas dum se paulatim propaginum ordinibus dirimens usque ad ultimum gradum subtraxerit, et propinquitas esse desierit, eam rursus lex matrimonii vinculo repetit, et quodam modo revocat fugientem. Ideo autem usque ad sextum generis gradum consanguinitas constituta est, ut sicut sex aetatibus mundi generatio et hominis status finitur, ita propinquitas generis tot gradibus terminaretur.

[29] As this consanguinity, gradually separating itself by the ranks of offshoots, has withdrawn down to the last degree and ceased to be propinquity, the law of marriage takes it up again by the bond, and in a certain way calls back the fugitive. And therefore consanguinity has been established up to the sixth degree of lineage, so that, just as generation and the status of man are finished by the six ages of the world, so the propinquity of the lineage might be bounded by so many degrees.

[STEMMA 3]

VII. DE CONIVGIIS.

7. ON MARRIAGES.

[1] Vir sexum significat, non coniugium, nisi adieceris vir eius.

[1] Vir signifies sex, not conjugal union, unless you add “her husband.”

[2] Maritus vero etiam sine adiectione coniugem sonat; et a mare maritus, quasi mas. Est enim nomen primae positionis, quod facit in diminutione masculus, in derivatione maritus.

[2] The husband (maritus), indeed, even without an addition, signifies a spouse; and from mare, maritus, as if from mas (male). For it is a noun of the first position, which makes in diminution masculus (“masculine, little male”), in derivation maritus.

[3] Sponsus ab spondendo vocatus. Nam ante usum tabellarum matrimonii cautiones sibi invicem emittebant, in quibus spondebant se invicem consentire in iura matrimonii, et fideiussores dabant.

[3] The bridegroom (sponsus) is called so from “to pledge” (spondere). For before the use of marriage tablets, they used to issue cautions/obligatory bonds to one another, in which they pledged that they mutually consented to the rights of matrimony, and they gave guarantors.

[4] Vnde admissum est ut sponsum dicamus virum, ab spondendo, et sponsam similiter. Ceterum proprie spondere velle est. Ergo sponsus non quia promittitur, sed quia spondet et sponsores dat.

[4] Whence it has been admitted that we call the man “sponsus,” from “spondere,” and the “sponsa” likewise. Furthermore, properly, to “spondere” is to will (to consent). Therefore, one is “sponsus” not because he is promised, but because he pledges and gives sponsors.

[5] Arrabo dicta, quasi arra bona. Quod enim datur pro coniugio, bene datur, quia coniugium bonum est. Quod vero causa fornicationis aut adulterii, malum est, idcirco arrabo non est.

[5] Arrabo is said, as if “good arra.” For what is given for marriage is well given, because marriage is good. But what is given on account of fornication or adultery is evil; therefore it is not arrabo.

[6] Dicta autem arra a re, pro qua traditur. Est autem arra non solum sponsio coniugalis, sed etiam pro qualibet promissa re, ut aut reddatur aut conpleatur.

[6] But the arra is said from the thing for which it is handed over. Moreover, an arra is not only a conjugal sponsion, but also for any promised thing, so that it either be returned or be completed.

[7] Proci nuptiarum petitores, a procando et petendo dicti.

[7] Suitors, petitioners for nuptials, are so named from courting and petitioning.

[8] Pronuba dicta, eo quod nubentibus praeest, quaeque nubentem viro coniungit. Ipsa est et paranympha. Nam nympha sponsa in nuptiis; et nympha pro lavationis officio, quod et ad nomen nubentis adluditur.

[8] Pronuba is so called because she presides over those who are marrying, and she it is who joins the marrying woman to the husband. She herself is also the paranymph. For nympha is the bride in nuptials; and nympha is used for the office of washing, which also plays upon the name of the one marrying.

[9] Coniuges appellati propter iugum, quod inponitur matrimonio coniungendis. Iugo enim nubentes subici solent, propter futuram concordiam, ne separentur. Coniuges autem verius appellantur a prima desponsationis fide, quamvis adhuc inter eos ignoretur coniugalis concubitus; sicut Maria Ioseph coniux vocatur, inter quos nec fuerat nec futura erat carnis ulla commixtio.

[9] Spouses are so called on account of the yoke (iugum), which is imposed upon those to be joined in marriage. For those marrying are accustomed to be subjected to the yoke for the sake of future concord, lest they be separated. But more truly they are called spouses from the first faith of desponsation (betrothal), although as yet conjugal intercourse is unknown between them; just as Mary is called the spouse of Joseph, between whom there had neither been nor was going to be any commixture of flesh.

[10] Nuptae dictae, quod vultus suos velent. Translatum nomen a nubibus, quibus tegitur caelum. Vnde et nuptiae dicuntur, quod ibi primum nubentium capita velantur.

[10] Brides are so called because they veil their faces. The name is transferred from the clouds, by which heaven is covered. Whence also nuptials are so called, because there for the first time the heads of those marrying are veiled.

Obnubere enim cooperire est.

For to obnubere is to cover over.

[11] Cuius contraria innuba, hoc est innupta, quae adhuc vultum suum non velat. Vxores vocatae, quasi unxiores.

[11] Its contrary is innuba, that is, innupta, she who as yet does not veil her face. Wives are called uxores, as if unxiores.

[12] Moris enim erat antiquitus ut nubentes puellae simul venirent ad limen mariti, et postes, antequam ingrederentur, ornarent laneis vittis et oleo unguerent. Et inde uxores dictae, quasi unxiores: quae ideo vetabantur limina calcare, quod illic ianuae et coeant et separentur.

[12] For it was the custom in ancient times that maidens, when marrying, as they came to the husband’s threshold, would adorn the doorposts with woolen fillets and anoint them with oil before they entered. And from that they were called wives, as if “unxiores” (anointed-ones): who therefore were forbidden to tread upon the thresholds, because there the doors both come together and are separated.

[13] Matrona est quae iam nupsit, et dicta matrona, quasi mater nati, vel quia iam mater fieri potest, unde et matrimonium dictum. Distinguitur autem inter matronam et matrem, et matrem et matremfamilias. Nam matronae, quia iam in matrimonium convenerunt: matres, quia genuerunt: matresfamilias, quia perquandam iuris sollemnitatem in familiam mariti transierunt.

[13] A matron is she who has already married, and she is called “matron,” as if “mother of one born,” or because she can already become a mother, whence also “matrimony” is so called. Moreover, a distinction is made between a matron and a mother, and between a mother and a materfamilias. For “matrons,” because they have already come together into matrimony; “mothers,” because they have begotten; “matresfamilias,” because through a certain solemnity of law they have passed into the husband’s family.

[14] Monogamus dictus, quia uni tantum nupsit. MONON enim apud Graecos unum dicitur, GAMOS nuptiae interpretantur.

[14] Monogamist is so called, because he has married only one. For MONON among the Greeks is said “one,” GAMOS is interpreted “nuptials.”

[15] Digamus autem et trigamus a numero uxorum vocatus, quasi duabus, vel tribus maritus.

[15] A digamist and a trigamist are called from the number of wives, as if a husband of two, or of three.

[16] Vidua vocata, quod cum viro duo non fuerit, nec circa consortium alterius viri post mortem coniugis primi adhaeserit. Nam quae alteri post mortem prioris viri nupserint, viduae non dicuntur. Item vidua dicta, quod sola sit, nec circa consortium viri coniugalia iura custodiat.

[16] Widow is so called, because with a man she has not been two, nor has she adhered to the consortium of another husband after the death of her first spouse. For those who have married another after the death of their prior husband are not called widows. Likewise, she is called widow because she is alone, and does not keep the conjugal rights with respect to a husband’s consortium.

[17] Fratris uxor fratrissa vocatur. Mariti frater levir dicitur. Duorum inter se fratrum uxores ianetrices vocantur, quasi eandem ianuam terentes, vel per eandem ianuam iter habentes.

[17] A brother’s wife is called fratrissa. A husband’s brother is called levir. The wives of two brothers, with respect to each other, are called ianetrices, as if treading the same door, or having a way through the same door.

Viri soror galos appellatur.

The husband's sister is called a galos.

[18] Sororis vir speciale nomen non habet, nec uxoris frater.

[18] The husband of a sister has no special name, nor the brother of a wife.

[19] Matrimonium est nubilium iusta conventio et condicio.

[19] Matrimony is the just convention and condition of the marriageable.

[20] Coniugium est legitimarum personarum inter se coeundi et copulandi nuptiae: coniugium dictum quia coniuncti sunt, vel a iugo quo in nuptiis copulantur, ne resolvi aut separari possint.

[20] Conjugal union is the nuptials of legitimate persons for coming together and being coupled with one another: it is called conjugal union because they are conjoined, or from the yoke by which, in weddings, they are coupled, so that they cannot be loosed or separated.

[21] Conubium autem non a nupta, sed a nubendo formatum. Dicitur autem conubium, cum aequales in nuptias coeunt, ut puta cives Romani, pari utique dignitate. Conubium autem non est, cum civis Romanus cum Latina iungitur.

[21] Conubium, moreover, is formed not from “nupta,” but from “nubendo.” It is called conubium when equals go together into nuptials, for instance Roman citizens, of course with equal dignity. But there is no conubium when a Roman citizen is joined with a Latin woman.

Quotiens autem conubium non est, filii patrem non sequuntur.

However, whenever conubium is not present, the children do not follow the father.

[22] Hymenaeus dicitur a quodam Hymenaeo, qui primus prospere usus est nuptiis, vel APO TOU UMENOS, quae membrana virginitatis est claustrum.

[22] Hymenaeus is said from a certain Hymenaeus, who first used nuptials prosperously, or from APO TOU UMENOS, which is the membrane of virginity, the closure.

[23] Contubernium est ad tempus coeundi conventio; unde et tabernaculum, quod modo huc, modo illuc praefigitur.

[23] Contubernium is a convention of coming-together for a time; whence also tabernacle, which is fastened now here, now there.

[24] Repudium est quod sub testimonio testium vel praesenti vel absenti mittitur.

[24] A repudiation is that which, under the testimony of witnesses, is sent either to one present or to one absent.

[25] Divortiumn est quotienscumque dissoluto matrimonio alter eorum alteras nuptias sequitur. Divortium autem dictum a flexu viarum, hoc est, viae in diversa tendentes.

[25] Divorce is whenever, with the matrimony dissolved, one of them pursues other nuptials. But “divorce” is said to be from the flexure of roads, that is, roads tending in different directions.

[26] Frivolum est cum eo animo separantur, ut rursum ad se invicem revertantur. Nam frivolus est velut quassae mentis et fluxae, nec stabilis. Proprie autem frivola vocantur fictilia vasa inutilia.

[26] A frivolum is when they are separated with this intention, that they will return again to one another. For “frivolous” is as if of a mind shaken and in flux, not stable. Properly, however, “frivola” are called useless fictile (earthenware) vessels.

[27] Tribus autem ob causis ducitur uxor: prima est causa prolis, de qua legitur in Genesi (1,28): 'Et benedixit eos,' dicens: 'Crescite et multiplicamini': secunda causa adiutorii, de qua ibi in Genesi dicitur (2,18): 'Non est bonum esse hominem solum; faciamus ei adiutorium simile': tertia causa incontinentiae, unde dicit Apostolus, ut (1 Cor. 7,9): 'Qui se non continet, nubat.'

[27] But a wife is taken for three causes: the first cause is offspring, about which is read in Genesis (1:28): 'And he blessed them,' saying: 'Increase and be multiplied': the second cause is aid, about which there in Genesis it is said (2:18): 'It is not good that the man should be alone; let us make for him a help like unto him': the third cause is incontinence, whence the Apostle says, as (1 Cor. 7:9): 'He who does not contain himself, let him marry.'

[28] In eligendo marito quattuor spectari solent: virtus, genus, pulchritudo, sapientia. Ex his sapientia potentior est ad amoris affectum. Refert haec quattuor Vergilius de Aenea, quod his Dido inpulsa est in amorem eius (Aen. 4,11-14):

[28] In choosing a husband four things are wont to be considered: virtue, lineage, beauty, wisdom. Of these, wisdom is more potent toward the affection of love. Vergil reports these four about Aeneas, that by these Dido was impelled into love of him (Aen. 4,11-14):

Pulchritudine:
Quam sese ore ferens!

Pulchritude:
How he bears himself in countenance!

Virtute:
Quam forti pectore et armis!

By virtue:
How brave in heart and in arms!

Oratione:
Heu quibus ille
iactatus fatis, quae bella exhausta canebat!

Oration:
Alas, by what fates was he
tossed, what wars endured he sang!

Genere:
Credo equidem, nec vana fides, genus esse deorum.

By lineage:
I indeed believe, and the faith is not vain, that the lineage is of the gods.

[29] Item in eligenda uxore quattuor res inpellunt hominem ad amorem: pulchritudo, genus, divitiae, mores. Melius tamen si in ea mores quam pulchritudo quaeratur. Nunc autem illae quaeruntur, quas aut divitiae aut forma, non quas probitas morum commendat.

[29] Likewise, in choosing a wife four things impel a man to love: beauty, lineage, riches, mores. Better, however, if in her mores rather than beauty be sought. Now, however, those are sought which either riches or form commend, not those which the probity of mores commends.

[30] Ideo autem feminae sub viri potestate consistunt, quia levitate animi plerumque decipiuntur. Vnde et aequum erat eas viri auctoritate reprimi. Proinde et veteres volueruut feminas innuptas, quamvis perfectae aetatis essent, propter ipsam animi levitatem in tutela consistere.

[30] For this reason, moreover, women stand under the power of a man, because by levity of mind they are for the most part deceived. And so it was equitable that they be restrained by a man’s authority. Accordingly the ancients wished unmarried women, although they were of perfected age, to remain in guardianship on account of that very levity of mind.