Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] Moses, of the Hebrew nation, first of all explicated the divine laws in sacred letters. King Phoroneus first constituted for the Greeks laws and judgments.

[2] Mercurius Trimegistus primus leges Aegyptiis tradidit. Solon primus leges Atheniensibus dedit. Lycurgus primus Lacedaemoniis iura ex Apollinis auctoritate confinxit.

[2] Mercury Trismegistus first handed down laws to the Egyptians. Solon first gave laws to the Athenians. Lycurgus first fashioned laws for the Lacedaemonians by the authority of Apollo.

[3] Numa Pompilius, qui Romulo successit in regno, primus leges Romanis edidit; deinde cum populus seditiosos magistratus ferre non posset, Decemviros legibus scribendis creavit, qui leges ex libris Solonis in Latinum sermonem translatas duodecim tabulis exposuerunt.

[3] Numa Pompilius, who succeeded Romulus in the kingship, first published laws for the Romans; then, when the people could not bear seditious magistrates, he created Decemvirs for writing laws, who set forth on twelve tables the laws translated into the Latin tongue from the books of Solon.

[4] Fuerunt autem hi: Appius Claudius, Genucius, Veterius, Iulius, Manlius, Sulpicius, Sextius, Curatius, Romilius, Postumius. Hi Decemviri legum conscribendarum electi sunt.

[4] Moreover, these were: Appius Claudius, Genucius, Veterius, Julius, Manlius, Sulpicius, Sextius, Curatius, Romilius, Postumius. These Decemvirs were elected for the drafting of the laws.

[5] Leges autem redigere in libris primus consul Pompeius instituere voluit, sed non perseveravit obtrectatorum metu. Deinde Caesar coepit [id] facere, sed ante interfectus est.

[5] However, the consul Pompey was the first to wish to institute the redacting of the laws into books, but he did not persevere for fear of detractors. Then Caesar began to do [that], but he was slain beforehand.

[6] Paulatim autem antiquae leges vetustate atque incuria exoleverunt, quarum etsi nullus iam usus est, notitia tamen necessaria videtur.

[6] Little by little, however, the ancient laws have died out through vetusty and incuria, of which, although there is now no use, nevertheless knowledge seems necessary.

[7] Novae a Constantino Caesare coeperunt et reliquis succedentibus, erantque per mixtae et inordinatae. Postea Theodosius minor Augustus ad similitudinem Gregoriani et Hermogeniani codicem factum constitutionum a Constantini temporibus sub proprio cuiusque imperatoris titulo disposuit, quem a suo nomine Theodosianum vocavit.

[7] New ones began under Constantine Caesar and the rest succeeding, and they were mixed together and inordinate. Afterwards Theodosius the Younger, Augustus, on the similitude of the Gregorian and Hermogenian, arranged a code made of constitutions from the times of Constantine under the proper title of each emperor, which from his own name he called the Theodosian.

II. DE LEGIBVS DIVINIS ET HVMANIS.

2. ON DIVINE AND HUMAN LAWS.

[1] Omnes autem leges aut divinae sunt, aut humanae. Divinae natura, humanae moribus constant; ideoque haec discrepant, quoniam aliae aliis gentibus placent.

[1] But all laws are either divine or human. Divine ones consist by nature, human ones by mores; and therefore these differ, since different ones please different peoples.

[2] Fas lex divina est, ius lex humana. Transire per alienum fas est, ius non est.

[2] Fas is divine law, ius is human law. To pass through another’s property is fas; it is not ius.

III. QVID DIFFERVNT INTER SE IVS, LEGES ET MORES.

3. HOW DO LAW, LAWS, AND MORES DIFFER AMONG THEMSELVES.

[1] Ius generale nomen est, lex autem iuris est species. Ius autem dictum, quia iustum [est]. Omne autem ius legibus et moribus constat.

[1] Law is a general name; a statute, however, is a species of law. And it is called law because it is just [is]. Moreover, all law consists of statutes and customs.

[2] Lex est constitutio scripta. Mos est vetustate probata consuetudo, sive lex non scripta. Nam lex a legendo vocata, quia scripta est.

[2] Law is a written constitution. Custom is a consuetude approved by antiquity, or an unwritten law. For law is called from reading, because it is written.

[3] Mos autem longa consuetudo est de moribus tracta tantundem. Consuetudo autem est ius quoddam moribus institutum, quod pro lege suscipitur, cum deficit lex: nec differt scriptura an ratione consistat, quando et legem ratio commendet.

[3] But mos is long consuetude, drawn likewise from mores. Consuetude, moreover, is a certain ius instituted by mores, which is received in place of a law when the law is lacking; nor does it differ whether it consists in writing or in reason, since reason also commends the law.

[4] Porro si ratione lex constat, lex erit omne iam quod ratione constiterit, dumtaxat quod religioni congruat, quod disciplinae conveniat, quod saluti proficiat. Vocata autem consuetudo, quia in communi est usu.

[4] Moreover, if law consists by reason, then everything now that has been established by reason will be law, provided that it be congruent with religion, suitable to discipline, and salutary. And it is called “custom,” because it is in common use.

IV. QVID SIT IVS NATVRALE.

4. WHAT NATURAL LAW IS.

[1] Ius autem naturale [est], aut civile, aut gentium. Ius naturale [est] commune omnium nationum, et quod ubique instinctu naturae, non constitutione aliqua habetur; ut viri et feminae coniunctio, liberorum successio et educatio, communis omnium possessio, et omnium una libertas, adquisitio eorum quae caelo, terra marique capiuntur.

[1] Law, moreover, is either natural, or civil, or of nations. Natural law is common to all nations, and is that which everywhere is held by the instinct of nature, not by any constitution; as the conjunction of man and woman, the succession and education of children, the common possession of all, and the one liberty of all, the acquisition of those things which are captured in the sky, on land, and at sea.

[2] Item depositae rei vel commendatae pecuniae restitutio, violentiae per vim repulsio. Nam hoc, aut si quid huic simile est, numquam iniustum [est], sed naturale aequumque habetur.

[2] Likewise, the restitution of a deposited thing or of entrusted money, the repelling of violence by force. For this, or if anything similar to this, is never unjust, but is held to be natural and equitable.

V. QVID SIT IVS CIVILE.

5. WHAT THE CIVIL LAW IS.

[1] Ius civile est quod quisque populus vel civitas sibi proprium humana divinaque causa constituit.

[1] Civil law is what each people or city constitutes as proper to itself for human and divine reasons.

VI. QVID SIT IVS GENTIVM.

6. WHAT THE LAW OF NATIONS IS.

[1] Ius gentium est sedium occupatio, aedificatio, munitio, bella, captivitates, servitutes, postliminia, foedera pacis, indutiae, legatorum non violandorum religio, conubia inter alienigenas prohibita. Et inde ius gentium, quia eo iure omnes fere gentes utuntur.

[1] The law of nations is the occupation of settlements, building, fortification, wars, captivities, slavery, postliminy, treaties of peace, truces, the sanctity of not violating legates, marriages between foreigners prohibited. And hence the law of nations, because almost all peoples make use of that law.

VII. QVID SIT IVS MILITARE.

7. WHAT MILITARY LAW IS.

[1] Ius militare est belli inferendi sollemnitas, foederis faciendi nexus, signo data egressio in hostem vel commissio. Item signo dato receptio; item flagitii militaris disciplina, si locus deseratur; item stipendiorum modus, dignitatum gradus, praemiorum honor, veluti cum corona vel torques donantur.

[1] Military law is the solemnity of inflicting war, the bond of making a treaty, the egress against the enemy or the engagement when the signal has been given. Likewise, at a given signal, the withdrawal; likewise, the discipline for military disgrace, if a position is deserted; likewise, the measure of stipends, the grades of dignities, the honor of rewards, as when a crown or torques are bestowed.

[2] Item praedae decisio, et [pro] personarum qualitatibus et labori iusta divisio; item principis portio.

[2] Likewise the adjudication of booty, and, [for] the qualities of persons and their labor, a just division; likewise the prince’s portion.

VIII. QVID SIT IVS PVBLICVM.

8. WHAT PUBLIC LAW IS.

[1] Ius publicum est in sacris et sacerdotibus, in magistratibus.

[1] Public law is in sacred things and priests, in magistrates.

IX. QVID SIT IVS QVIRITVM.

9. WHAT IS QUIRITARY LAW.

[1] Ius Quiritum est proprie Romanorum, quo nulli tenentur nisi Quirites, id est Romani, tamquam de legitimis hereditatibus, de cretionibus, de tutelis, de usucapionibus; quae iura apud alium nullum populum reperiuntur, sed propria sunt, Romanorum et in eosdem solos a constituta.

[1] The Law of the Quirites is properly that of the Romans, by which no one is bound except the Quirites, that is, the Romans, as, for instance, concerning legitimate inheritances, concerning cretions, concerning tutelages, concerning usucapions; which rights are found among no other people, but are proper to the Romans and have been constituted for them alone.

[2] Constat autem ius Quiritum ex legibus et plebiscitis, constitutionibus principum et edictis; sive prudentium responsis.

[2] Moreover, the Quiritian law consists of laws and plebiscites, of the constitutions of the princes and edicts; or of the responses of the jurists.

X. QVID SIT LEX.

10. WHAT LAW IS.

[1] Lex est constitutio populi, qua maiores natu simul cum plebibus aliquid sanxerunt.

[1] Law is a constitution of the people, by which the elders together with the plebs have sanctioned something.

XI. QVID SC1TA PLEBIVM.

11. WHAT ARE THE PLEBISCITES.

[1] Scita sunt quae plebes tantum constituunt; et vocata scita quod ea plebs sciat, vel quod sciscitatur et rogatur ut fiat.

[1] Plebiscites are those things which the plebs alone establish; and they are called scita because the plebs knows them, or because it is consulted and asked that it be done.

XII. QVID SENATVSCONSVLTVM.

12. WHAT IS A SENATUS CONSULTUM.

[1] Senatusconsultum, quod tantum senatores populis consulendo decernunt.

[1] A senatus-consult, which only the senators, by deliberating for the people, decree.

XIII. QVID CONSTITVTIO ET EDICTVM.

13. WHAT IS A CONSTITUTION AND AN EDICT.

[1] Constitutio vel edictum, quod rex vel imperator constituit vel edicit.

[1] A constitution or edict, which a king or emperor establishes or issues.

XIV. QVID RESPONSA PRVDENTVM.

14. WHAT ARE THE RESPONSES OF THE JURISTS.

[1] Responsa sunt quae iurisconsulti respondere dicuntur consulentibus; unde et responsa Pauli dicta. Fuerunt enim quidam prudentes et arbitri aequitatis, qui institutiones civilis iuris conpositas ediderunt, quibus dissidentium lites contentionesque sopirent.

[1] Responsa are those which the jurisconsults are said to give in answer to those consulting; whence also the Responsa of Paul are so called. For there were certain prudentes and arbiters of equity who published composed Institutes of civil law, by which they might quiet the lawsuits and contentions of those disagreeing.

XV. DE LEGIBVS CONSVLARIBVS ET TRIBVNITIIS.

15. ON CONSULAR AND TRIBUNITIAN LAWS.

[1] Quaedam etiam leges dicuntur ab his qui condiderunt, ut consulares, tribuniciae, Iuliae, Corneliae. Nam [et] sub Octaviano Caesare suffecti consules Papius et Poppaeus legem tulerunt, quae a nominibus eorum appellatur Papia Poppaea, continens patrum praemia pro suscipiendis liberis.

[1] Some laws also are called from those who established them, such as consular, tribunician, Julian, Cornelian. For also under Octavian Caesar the suffect consuls Papius and Poppaeus brought forward a law, which from their names is called the Papia Poppaea, containing rewards for fathers for the procreation of children.

[2] Sub eodem quoque imperatore Falcidius tribunus plebis legem fecit, ne quis plus [in] extraneis testamento legaret quam ut quarta pars superesset heredibus. Ex cuius nomine lex Falcidia nuncupata est. Aquilius quoque [legem condidit, quae hactenus Aquilia nuncupatur.]

[2] Under the same emperor as well, Falcidius, tribune of the plebs, made a law, that no one should bequeath more [to] outsiders by testament than that a fourth part should remain over to the heirs. From whose name the Lex Falcidia has been named. Aquilius also [established a law, which up to now is called the Aquilian (law).]

XVI. DE LEGE SATVRA.

16. ON THE SATURA LAW.

[1] Satura vero lex est quae de pluribus simul rebus eloquitur, dicta a copia rerum et quasi a saturitate; unde et saturas scribere est poemata varia condere, ut Horatii, Iuvenalis et Persii. Lex novella.

[1] But a satura law is that which speaks out about several matters at once, so called from an abundance of things and, as it were, from satiety; whence also to write saturae is to compose varied poems, like those of Horace, Juvenal, and Persius. A novel law.

XVII. DE LEGIBVS RHODIIS.

17. ON THE RHODIAN LAWS.

[1] Rhodiae leges navalium conmerciorum sunt, ab insula Rhodo cognominatae, in qua antiquitus mercatorum usus fuit.

[1] The Rhodian laws are of naval commerce, cognominated from the island of Rhodes, in which, in ancient times, the merchants’ usage prevailed.

XVIII. DE PRIVILEGIIS.

18. ON PRIVILEGES.

[1] Privilegia autem sunt leges privatorum, quasi privatae leges. Nam privilegium inde dictum, quod in privato feratur.

[1] Privileges, moreover, are the laws of private persons, as if private laws. For “privilege” is so called from the fact that it is enacted in regard to a private person.

XIX. QVID POSSIT LEX.

19. WHAT THE LAW CAN DO.

[1] Omnis autem lex aut permittit aliquid, ut: 'Vir fortis petat praemium,' aut vetat, ut: 'Sacrarum virginum nuptias nulli petere liceat,' aut punit, ut: 'Qui caedem fecerit, capite plectatur.' Eius enim praemio aut poena vita moderatur humana.

[1] Every law, moreover, either permits something, as: 'Let a brave man seek a premium,' or forbids, as: 'Let it be permitted to no one to seek the marriages of sacred virgins,' or punishes, as: 'Whoever has committed a slaying, let him be punished with the head.' For by its reward or punishment human life is moderated.

XX. QVARE FACTA EST LEX.

20. WHY THE LAW WAS MADE.

[1] Factae sunt autem leges ut earum metu humana coerceatur audacia, tutaque sit inter inprobos innocentia, et in ipsis inpiis formidato supplicio refrenetur nocendi facultas.

[1] Moreover, laws were made so that by fear of them human audacity might be coerced, and innocence might be safe among the wicked, and in the impious themselves, by a dreaded punishment, the faculty of harming might be reined in.

XXI. QVALIS DEBEAT FIERI LEX.

21. WHAT SORT OF LAW OUGHT TO BE MADE.

[1] Erit autem lex honesta, iusta, possibilis, secundum naturam, secundum consuetudinem patriae, loco temporique conveniens, necessaria, utilis, manifesta quoque, ne aliquid per obscuritatem in captionem contineat, nullo privato commodo, sed pro communi civium utilitate conscripta.

[1] Moreover a law will be honorable, just, possible, according to nature, in accordance with the custom of the fatherland, fitting to place and time, necessary, useful, also manifest, lest it contain anything leading to entrapment through obscurity, with no private advantage, but written for the common utility of the citizens.

XXII. DE CAVSIS.

22. ON CAUSES.

[1] PRAGMA Graecum est, quod Latine dicitur causa, unde et pragmatica negotia dicuntur, et actor causarum et negotiorum pragmaticus nuncupatur.

[1] PRAGMA is Greek, which in Latin is called causa (“case”), whence also pragmatic affairs are so called, and the pleader of causes and of affairs is named pragmaticus.

XXIII. DE TESTIBVS.

23. ON WITNESSES.

[1] Testes [sunt quibus veritas quaeritur in iudicio]. Hos quisque ante iudicium sibi placitis alligat, ne cui sit postea liberum aut dissimulare aut subtrahere se; unde et alligati appellantur. Item testes dicti quod testamento adhiberi solent; sicut signatores, quod testamentum signant.

[1] Witnesses [are those by whom truth is sought in judgment]. Each person binds these to himself by pacts before the trial, so that afterward it may not be free for anyone either to dissemble or to withdraw himself; whence they are also called “bound.” Likewise they are called witnesses because they are accustomed to be called in to a testament; just as signatories, because they sign the testament.

XXIV. DE INSTRVMENTIS LEGALIBVS.

24. ON LEGAL INSTRUMENTS.

[1] Voluntas generale nomen omnium legalium instrumentorum; quae quia non vi, sed voluntate procedit, ideo tale nomen accepit.

[1] Voluntas is the general name of all legal instruments; which, because it proceeds not by force, but by will/volition, for that reason has received such a name.

[2] Testamentum vocatum quia, nisi testator mortuus fuerit, nec confirmari potest nec sciri quid in eo scriptum sit, quia clausum et obsignatum est; et inde dictum testamentum, quia non valet nisi post testatoris monumentum, unde et Apostolus (Hebr. 9,17), 'Testamentum,' inquit, 'in mortuis confirmatur.'

[2] It is called a testament because, unless the testator shall have died, it can neither be confirmed nor can it be known what is written in it, because it is closed and sealed; and thence it is called a testament, because it is not valid except after the testator’s monument, whence also the Apostle (Heb. 9,17), says, 'A testament is confirmed upon the dead.'

[3] Testamentum sane in Scripturis sanctis non hoc solum dicitur, quod non valet nisi testatoribus mortuis, sed omne pactum et placitum testamentum vocabant. Nam Laban et Iacob testamentum fecerunt, quod utique etiam inter vivos valeret, et in Psalmis legitur (82,6): 'Adversum te testamentum disposuerunt,' hoc est, pactum; et innumerabilia talia.

[3] A testament, to be sure, in the sacred Scriptures is not said only of that which is not valid unless the testators have died, but they called every pact and agreement a testament. For Laban and Jacob made a testament, which, assuredly, would be valid even among the living; and in the Psalms one reads (82,6): 'They have arranged a testament against you,' that is, a pact; and innumerable such things.

[4] Tabulae testamenti ideo appellatae sunt, quia ante chartae et membranarum usum in dolatis tabulis non solum testamenta, sed etiam epistolarum alloquia scribebantur; unde et portitores earum tabellarii vocabantur.

[4] The tablets of the testament were therefore appellated because, before the use of paper and parchments, not only testaments but also the addresses of letters were written on planed tablets; whence also the bearers of them were called tabellarii.

[5] Testamentum iuris civilis est quinque testium subscriptione firmatum.

[5] A testament of civil law is made firm by the subscription of five witnesses.

[6] Testamentum iuris praetorii est septem testium signis signatum: sed illud apud cives fit, inde civile; istud apud praetores, inde iuris praetorii. Testamentum autem signare notare est, id est ut notum sit quod scriptum est.

[6] A testament of praetorian law is sealed with the seals of seven witnesses: but that former kind is made among the citizens, hence “civil”; this latter among the praetors, hence “of praetorian law.” Moreover, to sign a testament is to mark it, that is, so that what has been written may be known.

[7] Holographum testamentum est manu auctoris totum conscriptum atque subscriptum; unde et nomen accepit. Graeci enim OLON totum, GRAFEN litteram dicunt.

[7] A holograph testament is one entirely written out and subscribed by the hand of the author; whence it has also received its name. For the Greeks call OLON “whole,” and GRAFEN “letter.”

[8] Inritum testamentum est, si is qui testavit capite diminutus est, aut si non rite factum sit.

[8] A testament is void, if the one who made the will has been diminished in status (capite diminutus), or if it has not been duly made.

[9] Inofficiosum testamentum est, quod frustra liberis exheredatis sine officio naturalis pietatis in extraneas personas redactum est.

[9] An unofficious testament is that which, the children having been disinherited to no purpose, has been made over to extraneous persons without the office of natural piety.

[10] Ruptum testamentum inde vocatur, eo quod nascente postumo, neque exheredato nominatim, neque herede instituto, disrumpitur.

[10] A ruptured testament is so called on this account: upon a posthumous child being born, if he has neither been disinherited by name nor instituted as heir, it is broken asunder.

[11] Suppressum testamentum est, quod in fraude heredum vel legatariorum seu libertorum non est palam prolatum: quod si non latet, tamen si praedictis personis non proferatur, supprimi tamen videtur.

[11] A suppressed testament is [one] which, in fraud of the heirs or the legatees or the freedmen, has not been openly produced: and even if it is not hidden, nevertheless if it is not brought forward to the aforesaid persons, it is nevertheless deemed to be suppressed.

[12] Nuncupatio est, quam in tabulis cerisque testator recitat, dicens: 'Haec ut in his tabulis cerisque scripta sunt, ita dico, ita lego: itaque vos, cives Romani, testimonium mihi perhibete,' et hoc dicitur nuncupatio: nuncupare est enim palam nominare et confirmare.

[12] Nuncupation is that which the testator recites on the tablets and wax-tablets, saying: 'These things, as they have been written in these tablets and wax-tablets, so I say, so I read: and so you, Roman citizens, bear witness for me,' and this is called nuncupation: for to nuncupate is to name openly and to confirm.

[13] Ius liberorum est coniugum sine liberis invicem pro loco pignorum hereditatis alterna conscriptio.

[13] The right of children is the reciprocal alternate conscription of spouses without children, into the inheritance, in place of offspring.

[14] Codicillum, ut veteres aiunt, sine dubio ab auctore dictum, qui hoc scripturae genus instituit. Est autem scriptura nullam indigens sollemnitatem verborum, sed solam testatoris voluntatem qualicumque scripturae significatione expressam. Cuius beneficio voluntatibus defunctorum constat esse subventum propter legalium verborum difficultatem, aut certe propter necessitatem adhibendorum sollemnium, ita ut qui scribit titulum eiusdem scripturae codicillum vocet.

[14] Codicil, as the ancients say, was without doubt named from the author who instituted this genus of writing. Moreover, it is a writing needing no solemnity of words, but only the will of the testator expressed by whatever indication of writing. Thanks to which, it is agreed that aid has been brought to the wishes of the deceased, on account of the difficulty of legal words, or certainly because of the necessity of employing the required solemnities, such that whoever writes may call the title of that same writing “codicil.”

Sicut autem codicillus fit vice testamenti, ita epistola vice codicillorum.

And just as a codicil is made in place of a testament, so an epistle in place of codicils.

[15] Cretio est certus dierum numerus, in quo institutus heres aut adit hereditatem, aut finito tempore cretionis excluditur, nec liberum illi est ultra capiendae hereditatis.

[15] Cretio is a fixed number of days, within which the instituted heir either enters upon the inheritance, or, the time of cretio having ended, is excluded, nor is it open to him any longer to take the inheritance.

[16] Cretio autem appellata quasi decretio, id est decernere vel constituere, ut puta: 'ille heres mihi esto': additurque, 'cernitoque infra dies tot.' Adeundarum autem hereditatum centesimus statutus erat dies, quibus non esset cretio addita.

[16] Cretio, moreover, is so called as if from decretio, that is, to decree or to constitute, as for example: 'let that man be my heir'; and it is added, 'and make your decision within so many days.' But for inheritances to be entered upon, the hundredth day was appointed, for those to which a cretio had not been added.

[17] Fideicommissum dictum, ut fiat quod a defuncto committitur. Nam fides dicta eo quod fiat; quod tamen non in directis verbis, sed precativis exposcitur.

[17] A fideicommiss is so called, so that what is committed by the deceased may be brought to pass. For fides is said from fiat, “let it be done”; which, however, is not set forth in direct words, but is requested in precative ones.

[18] Pactum dicitur inter partes ex pace conveniens scriptura, legibus ac moribus conprobata; et dictum pactum quasi ex pace factum, ab eo quod est paco, unde et pepigit.

[18] A pact is called a writing, agreeing from peace, between the parties, approved by laws and by customs; and it is called “pact” as if made from “peace,” from that which is paco, whence also “pepigit.”

[19] Placitum quoque similiter ab eo, quod placeat. Alii dicunt pactum esse quod volens quisque facit; placitum vero etiam nolens conpellitur, veluti quando quisque paratus sit in iudicio ad respondendum; quod nemo potest dicere pactum, sed placitum.

[19] Placitum likewise [is so called] from that, namely that it “pleases.” Others say a pact is what someone does willing; but a placitum is [what one is] compelled [to do] even unwilling, as when someone is prepared in court (in judgment) to respond; which no one can call a pact, but a placitum.

[20] Mandatum dictum, quod olim in commisso negotio alter alteri manum dabat.

[20] Mandate is so named, because formerly, in a commissioned business, one gave his hand to the other.

[21] Ratum vero, quasi rationabile et rectum, unde et qui pollicetur dicit: 'Ratum esse profiteor', hoc est, firmum atque perpetuum.

[21] Ratified, indeed, as if rational and right, whence also he who promises says: 'I profess it to be ratum,' that is, firm and perpetual.

[22] Rite autem esse non recte, sed ex more. Chirographum. Cautio.

[22] Rite, moreover, is not “rightly,” but “according to custom.” Chirograph. Caution.

[23] Emtio et venditio est rerum commutatio atque contractus ex convenientia veniens.

[23] Purchase and vendition is an exchange of things and a contract arising from agreement.

[24] Emtio autem dicta, quod a me tibi sit: venditio quasi venundatio, id est a nundinis.

[24] Purchase (emptio) is so called because it is “from me to you”; sale (venditio) as if venundatio, that is, from the market-days (nundinae).

[25] Donatio est cuiuslibet rei transactio. Dictam autem dicunt donationem quasi doni actionem, et dotem quasi do item. Praecedente enim in nuptiis donatione, dos sequitur.

[25] A donation is the transfer of any thing. They say, moreover, that 'donation' is so called as though 'the action of a gift,' and 'dowry' as though 'I give likewise.' For, the donation preceding in nuptials, the dowry follows.

[26] Nam antiquus nuptiarum erat ritus quo se maritus et uxor invicem emebant, ne videretur uxor ancilla, sicut habemus in iure. Inde est quod praecedente donatione viri sequitur dos uxoris.

[26] For there was an ancient rite of nuptials by which the husband and the wife used to buy each other in turn, lest the wife should seem a handmaid, as we have in the law. Hence it is that, the husband's donation going before, the wife's dowry follows.

[27] Donatio usufructuaria ideo dicitur, quod donator ex ea usum fructum adhuc retinet, servato cui donatum est iure.

[27] A usufructuary donation is therefore so called, because the donor still retains from it the use and fruit (usufruct), with the right of the one to whom it has been donated preserved.

[28] Donatio directa ideo nuncupatur, quia et iure et usu statim transit in alterum, nec ultra aliquid inde ad ius donatoris retorquetur.

[28] A direct donation is therefore called thus, because both in law and in practice it immediately passes to the other, and thereafter nothing from it is reverted to the donor’s right.

[29] Condiciones proprie testium sunt, et dictae condiciones a condicendo, quasi condiciones, quia non ibi testis unus iurat, sed duo vel plures. Non enim in unius ore, sed in duorum aut trium testium stat omne verbum. Item condiciones, quod inter se conveniat sermo testium, quasi condictiones.

[29] Conditions are properly of witnesses, and they are called conditions from condicere, as if “co-dictions,” because there not one witness swears, but two or more. For not in the mouth of one, but in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word stands. Likewise “conditions,” because the speech of the witnesses agrees among themselves, as if “co-dictions.”

[30] Stipulatio est promissio vel sponsio; unde et promissores stipulatores vocantur. Dicta autem stipulatio ab stipula. Veteres enim, quando sibi aliquid promittebant, stipulam tenentes frangebant, quam iterum iungentes sponsiones suas agnoscebant [sive quod stipulum iuxta Paulum iuridicum firmum appellaverunt].

[30] Stipulation is a promise or a sponsion; whence even promissors are called stipulators. Moreover, stipulation is so called from a stipula. For the ancients, when they promised something to one another, holding a stalk they would break it, which, joining again, they would acknowledge their sponsions [or because they called stipulum, according to Paulus the jurist, “firm”].

[31] Sacramentum est pignus sponsionis; vocatum autem sacramentum, quia violare quod quisque promittit perfidiae est.

[31] A sacrament is a pledge of a sponsion; but called “sacrament,” because to violate what each person promises is perfidy.

XXV. DE REBVS.

25. ON THINGS.

[1] Hereditas est res quae morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit, vel legata testamento, vel possessione retenta. Dicta autem hereditas a rebus aditis, sive ab aere, quia qui possidet agrum et censum solvit; Ýinde et res.Ý

[1] Inheritance is a thing which, upon someone’s death, comes to someone, either bequeathed by a testament, or with possession retained. Moreover, it is called “inheritance” from “things entered upon” (res aditae), or from aes (bronze, money), because he who possesses a field also pays the census; Ýhence also “res.”Ý

[2] Res sunt quae in nostro iure consistunt. Iura autem sunt quae a nobis iuste possidentur nec aliena sunt.

[2] Things are those which consist in our law. Rights, moreover, are those which are justly possessed by us and are not alien.

[3] Dicta autem res a recte habendo, ius a iuste possidendo. Hoc enim iure possidetur quod iuste, hoc iuste quod bene. Quod autem male possidetur, alienum est.

[3] But a thing is so called from holding rightly, and right from possessing justly. For that is possessed by right which is possessed justly; and that justly which well. But what is possessed ill is alien, i.e., another’s.

Male autem possidet qui vel sua male utitur vel aliena praesumit. Possidet autem iuste qui non inretitur cupiditate. Qui autem cupiditate tenetur, possessus est, non possessor.

He, however, possesses badly who either uses his own things badly or presumes upon alien things. He, however, possesses justly who is not ensnared by cupidity. But he who is held by cupidity is possessed, not a possessor.

[4] Bona sunt honestorum seu nobilium, quae proinde bona dicuntur, ut non habeant turpem usum, sed ea homines ad res bonas utantur.

[4] Goods are of the honorable or the noble, which therefore are called goods, so that they may not have a shameful use, but that men may use them for good things.

[5] Peculium proprie minorum est personarum sive servorum. Nam peculium est quod pater vel dominus filium suum vel servum pro suo tractare patitur. Peculium autem a pecudibus dictum, in quibus veterum constabat universa substantia.

[5] The peculium is properly of lesser persons, or of slaves. For a peculium is that which a father or a master allows his son or his slave to manage as if his own. And “peculium” is said from “pecudes” (cattle), in which the entire substance of the ancients consisted.

[6] Bonorum possessio est ius possessionis, certo ordine certoque titulo adquisita.

[6] Possession of the goods is a right of possession, acquired in a fixed order and under a fixed title.

[7] Intestata hereditas est quae testamento scripta non est, aut, si scripta sit, iure tamen nequaquam est adita.

[7] An intestate inheritance is that which has not been written in a testament, or, if it has been written, nevertheless has in no way been entered upon in law.

[8] Caduca inde dicitur, quia eius heredes ceciderunt.

[8] “Caduca” is thence so called, because its heirs have fallen.

[9] Familia herciscunda est divisio hereditatis inter heredes. Herciscunda enim apud veteres divisio nuncupabatur.

[9] Familia herciscunda is the division of an inheritance among the heirs. For herciscunda among the ancients was called division.

[10] Communi dividendo est inter eos quibus communis res est, quae actio iubet postulantibus his arbitrum dari, cuius arbitratu res dividatur.

[10] The action for dividing a thing in common is between those to whom the thing is common; this action orders that, upon their petition, an arbiter be appointed, by whose arbitration the thing be divided.

[11] Finium regundorum actio dicta eo quod per eam regantur fines utrique, ne dissipentur, dummodo non angustiore quinque pedum loco ea controversia sit.

[11] The action of regulating boundaries is so called because through it the boundaries of both are regulated, lest they be dissipated, provided that the controversy is not in a place narrower than five feet.

[12] Locatio est res ad usum data cum definitione mercedis.

[12] Leasing is a thing given for use, with the definition of the rent.

[13] Conductio est res in usum accepta cum constituta mercede.

[13] Hiring (conductio) is a thing received for use with the rent established.

[14] Res credita est quae in obligationem ita deducta est, ut ex tempore, quo contrahebatur, certum sit eam deberi.

[14] The credited thing is that which has been brought into obligation in such a way that, from the time at which it was contracted, it is certain that it is owed.

[15] Vsura est incrementum fenoris, ab usu aeris crediti nuncupata.

[15] Usury is the increment of a loan, so called from the use of credited money.

[16] Commod(at)um est id quod nostri iuris est et ad alterum temporaliter translatum est cum modo temporis, quamdiu apud eum sit, unde et commod(at)um dictum est.

[16] Commod(at)um is that which is of our ownership and has been transferred to another temporally with a mode (limit) of time, for as long as it is with him, whence it has also been called commodatum.

[17] Precarium est dum prece creditor rogatus permittit debitorem in possessione fundi sibi obligati demorari, et ex eo fructus capere. Et dictum precarium quia prece aditur, quasi precadium, R pro D littera commutata.

[17] A precarium is when, upon being asked by a plea, the creditor permits the debtor to remain in possession of the estate pledged to him, and to take fruits from it. And it is called a precarium because it is approached by a prayer, as it were “precadium,” the letter R exchanged for D.

[18] Mutuum appellatum est quia id, quod a me tibi datur, ex meo tuum fit.

[18] It is called a mutuum because that which is given by me to you becomes yours, from being mine.

[19] Depositum est pignus commendatum ad tempus, quasi diu positum. Deponere autem quis videtur, cum aliquid metu furti, incendii, naufragii, apud alium custodiae causa deponit.

[19] A deposit is a pledge commended for a time, as if long placed down. Moreover, one is seen to deposit when, from fear of theft, fire, or shipwreck, he deposits something with another for the sake of custody.

[20] Interest autem in loquendi usu inter pignus et arram. Nam pignus est quod datur propter rem creditam, quae dum redditur, statim pignus aufertur. Arra vero est, quae primum pro re bonae fidei contractu empta, ex parte datur, et postea conpletur.

[20] There is, however, in the usage of speaking, a difference between pignus and arra. For a pignus is that which is given on account of a thing lent; when that is returned, the pignus is at once removed. Arra, however, is that which, for a thing bought by a good‑faith contract, is at first given in part, and afterward is completed.

[21] Est enim arra conplenda, non auferenda; unde qui habet arram non reddit sicut pignus, sed desiderat plenitudinem; et dicta arra a re, pro qua traditur.

[21] For the arra is to be completed, not removed; whence he who has the arra does not return it like a pledge, but desires the plenitude; and the arra is so called from the thing for which it is handed over.

Item inter pignus, fiduciam et hypothecam hoc interest.

Likewise, between pledge, fiducia, and hypothec, there is this difference.

[22] Pignus enim est quod propter rem creditam obligatur, cuius rei possessionem solam ad tempus consequitur creditor. Ceterum dominium penes debitorem est.

[22] For a pledge is that which is bound on account of a thing credited (a loan), of which thing the creditor obtains only possession for a time. Otherwise, the dominion is with the debtor.

[23] Fiducia est, cum res aliqua sumendae mutuae pecuniae gratia vel mancipatur vel in iure ceditur.

[23] Fiducia is, when some thing, for the sake of taking a loan of money, is either mancipated or is ceded in iure.

[24] Hypotheca est, cum res commodatur sine depositione pignoris, pacto vel cautione sola interveniente.

[24] Hypothec is, when a thing is put up as security without the deposition of a pledge, with only a pact or a caution intervening.

[25] Momentum dictum a temporis brevitate, ut [quam cito] quam statim salvo negotio reformetur, nec in ullam moram produci debeat quod repetitur; sicut nec ullum spatium est momenti, cuius tam brevis est temporis punctus ut in aliquam moram nullo modo producatur.

[25] A moment is so called from the brevity of time, so that [as quickly as] as immediately, with the transaction safe, it may be restored, and what is reclaimed ought not to be produced into any delay; just as there is no span of a moment, whose point of time is so brief that it is in no way drawn out into any delay.

[26] Instrumentum est unde aliquid construimus, ut cultrus, calamus, ascia.

[26] An instrument is that by which we construct something, as a knife, a reed-pen, an adze.

[27] Instructum, quod per instrumentum efficitur, ut baculus, codex, tabula.

[27] The thing constructed, which is effected through an instrument, such as a staff, a codex, a tablet.

[28] Vsus, quem in re instructa utimur, ut in baculo innitere, in codice legere, in tabula iudere; sed et ipse fructus agrorum, quia eo utimur, usus vocatur. Haec sunt illa tria.

[28] Use, which we employ in the furnished thing, as to lean on a staff, to read in a codex, to play on a board; but the very produce of the fields too, because we use it, is called "use." These are those three.

[29] Vsusfructus autem vocatus quia solo usu habetur eius fructus, manente apud alium iure.

[29] But it is called usufruct because by use alone one has its fruits, the right remaining with another.

[30] Vsucapio est adeptio dominii per continuationem iustae possessionis, vel biennii aut alicuius temporis.

[30] Usucapion is the acquisition of dominion through the continuance of just possession, whether of two years or of some period of time.

[31] Mancipatio dicta est quia manu res capitur. Vnde oportet eum, qui mancipio accipit, conprehendere id ipsum, quod ei mancipio datur.

[31] Mancipation is so called because the thing is taken by the hand. Whence it is necessary that he who receives by mancipation lay hold of that very thing which is given to him by mancipation.

[32] Cessio est propriae rei concessio, sicut est illud: 'Cedo iure propinquitatis.' Cedere enim dicimus quasi concedere, id est, quae propria sunt; nam aliena restituimus, non cedimus. Nam cedere proprie dicitur, qui contra veritatem alteri consentit, ut Cicero (Ligar. 7,22): 'Cessit' inquit 'amplissimi viri auctoritati, vel potius paruit.'

[32] Cession is the concession of one’s own thing, just as in this: 'I cede by the right of propinquity.' For we say “to cede” as if “to concede,” that is, in respect to those things which are proper (one’s own); for we restore alien things, we do not cede them. For “to cede” is properly said of one who, against the truth, consents to another, as Cicero (Ligar. 7,22): 'He yielded,' he says, 'to the authority of a most distinguished man, or rather he obeyed.'

[33] Interdictum est quod a iudice non in perpetuum, sed pro reformando momento ad tempus interim dicitur, salva propositione actionis eius.

[33] An interdict is that which by a judge is pronounced not in perpetuity, but for restoring for the moment, for a time in the interim, with the proposition of its action preserved.

[34] Pretium vocatum eo quod prius eum damus, ut pro eius vice rem, quam adpetimus, possidere debeamus.

[34] The price is so called because we give it first, so that, in its stead, we ought to possess the thing which we seek.

[35] Commercium dictum a mercibus, quo nomine res venales appellamus. Vnde mercatus dicitur coetus multorum hominum, qui res vendere vel emere solent.

[35] Commerce is so called from merchandise, by which name we call things for sale. Whence “market” is called a concourse of many men, who are accustomed to sell or to buy things.

[36] Integri restitutio est causae vel rei reparatio. Causa redintegratur, quae vi potestatis expleta non est.

[36] Restitution to integrity is the reparation of a cause or of a thing. A cause is redintegrated which has not been fulfilled by the force of authority.

[37] Res redintegratur, quae vi potestatis ablata atque extorta est.

[37] A thing is redintegrated which has been taken away and extorted by the force of authority.

XXVI. DE CRIMINIBVS IN LEGE CONSCRIPTIS.

26. ON CRIMES WRITTEN IN THE LAW.

[1] Crimen a carendo nomen: ut furtum, falsitas et cetera, quae non occidunt, sed infamant.

[1] Crime: a name from lacking; as theft, falsity, and the rest, which do not kill but defame.

[2] Facinus dictum a faciendo malum, quod noceat alteri.

[2] A felony is named from doing evil, that which harms another.

[3] Flagitium a flagitando corruptelam libidinis, qua noceat sibi.

[3] Flagitiousness from flagitating, the corruption of libido, whereby one harms himself.

[4] Haec sunt duo genera omnium peccatorum. Vis est virtus potestatis, per quam causa sive res vel aufertur vel extorquetur.

[4] These are the two genera of all sins. Force is the virtue of power, through which a cause or a thing is either taken away or extorted.

[5] Vis privata est, si quisque ante iudicium armatis hominibus quemquam a suo deiecerit vel expugnaverit.

[5] Private violence is, if anyone, before judgment, with armed men, has ejected anyone from what is his, or has overpowered him.

[6] Vis publica est, si quis civem ante populum vel iudicem vel regem appellantem necaverit, aut torserit sive verberaverit vel vinxerit.

[6] Public violence is, if anyone kills, or tortures, or scourges, or binds a citizen appealing before the people or a judge or a king.

[7] Dolus est mentis calliditas, ab eo quod deludat. Aliud enim agit, et aliud simulat. Petronius aliter existimat dicens: 'Quid est, iudices, dolus?

[7] Deceit is the mind’s shrewdness, so called from the fact that it deludes. For it does one thing, and simulates another. Petronius judges otherwise, saying: 'What is, judges, deceit?'

Nimirum ubi aliquid factum est quod legi dolet. Habetis dolum, accipite nunc malum.'

Clearly, whenever something has been done that pains the law. You have fraud; now receive the wrong.'

[8] Calumnia est iurgium alienae litis, a calvendo, id est decipiendo dicta.

[8] Calumny is the wrangling of another’s lawsuit, said to be from calvendo, that is, deceiving.

[9] Falsitas appellata a fando aliud quam verum est.

[9] Falsity is appellated from speaking, that is, saying something other than what is true.

[10] Iniuria est iniustitia. Hinc est apud Comicos (? Plaut. Mil.

[10] Injury is injustice. Hence it is among the Comic Poets (? Plaut. Mil.

436): 'Iniuria's'; qui audet aliquid contra ordinem iuris.

436): 'It is injustice'; one who dares anything against the order of law.

[11] Seditio dicitur dissensio civium, quod seorsum alii ad alios eunt. Nam hi maxime turbatione rerum et tumultu gaudent.

[11] Sedition is called a dissension of citizens, because, separately, some go to others. For these men especially rejoice in the perturbation of affairs and in tumult.

[12] Sacrilegium proprie est sacrarum rerum furtum. Postea et in idolorum cultu haesit hoc nomen.

[12] Sacrilege is properly the theft of sacred things. Afterwards this name also stuck in the cult of idols.

[13] Adulterium est inlusio alieni coniugii, quod, quia alterius torum commaculavit, adulterii nomen accepit.

[13] Adultery is a making-sport of another’s conjugal union, which, because it has defiled another’s marriage-bed, has received the name of adultery.

[14] Stuprum. Raptus proprie est inlicitus coitus, a conrumpendo dictus; unde et qui 'rapto potitur,' stupro fruitur.

[14] Sexual defilement. Rape properly is illicit coitus, said from corrupting; whence also he who 'rapto potitur' enjoys stuprum.

[15] Homicidii vocabulum conpositum est ex homine et caede. Qui enim caedem in hominem fecisse conpertus erat, homicidam veteres appellabant.

[15] The term homicide is composed from man and slaughter. For whoever was found to have made a slaughter upon a man, the ancients called a homicide.

[16] Parricidii actio non solum in eum dabatur qui parentem, id est vel patrem vel matrem interemisset, sed et in eum qui fratrem occiderat; et dictum parricidium quasi parentis caedem.

[16] The action of parricide was given not only against him who had slain a parent, that is, either father or mother, but also against him who had killed a brother; and it is called parricide as if a killing of a parent.

[17] Internecivum iudicium in eum dabatur qui falsum testamentum fecerat et ob id hominem occiderat. Accusatorem eius possessio bonorum sequebatur. Internecivi autem significatio est, quasi quaedam hominis enectio.

[17] An internecive judgment was given against one who had made a false testament and on account of that had killed a man. Possession of his goods followed the accuser. But the signification of “internecive” is, as it were, a certain putting-to-death of a man.

Nam praepositionem inter pro e ponebant. Naevius (trag. 52): 'Mare interbibere'; et Plautus (frag.

For they used to place the preposition inter in place of e. Naevius (trag. 52): 'to drink up the sea'; and Plautus (frag.

87): 'Interluere mare': id est, ebibere et eluere.

87): 'To inter-lave the sea': that is, to drink up and to elute.

[18] Furtum est rei alienae clandestina contrectatio, a furvo, id est fusco vocatum, quia in obscuro fit. Furtum autum capitale crimen apud maiores fuit ante poenam quadrupli.

[18] Theft is the clandestine handling of another’s property, called from furvus, that is, fuscous, because it is done in obscurity. Theft, however, was a capital crime among the ancestors before the penalty of quadruple damages.

[19] Pervasio est rei alienae manifesta praesumptio. Furtum autem earum rerum fit, quae de loco in locum transferri possunt: pervasio autem et earum quae transferuntur et earum quae inmobilia sunt.

[19] Pervasion is the manifest presumption of another’s property. Theft, however, is committed of those things which can be transferred from place to place; pervasion, however, of both those which are transferred and those which are immovable.

[20] Infitiatio est negatio debitae rei, cum a creditore deposcitur. Idem et abiuratio, id est rei creditae abnegatio.

[20] Infitiation is the negation of a thing owed, when it is demanded by the creditor. The same is also abjuration, that is, the abnegation of a credited thing.

[21] Ambitus iudicium in eum est, qui largitione honorem capit et ambit, amissurus dignitatem, quam munere invadit.

[21] An ambitus judgment is against him who by largess seizes and canvasses for an honor, about to forfeit the dignity which he invades by a gift.

[22] Peculatus iudicium in eos datur qui fraudem aerario faciunt, pecuniamque publicam intervertunt. Nam a pecunia peculatum esse dictum. Non autem sic iudicatur furtum rei publicae, sicut rei privatae.

[22] A judgment for peculation is instituted against those who commit fraud upon the treasury and intervert public money. For “peculation” is said to be derived from “pecunia” (money). But the theft of public property is not judged in the same way as that of private property.

Nam ille sic iudicatur ut sacrilegus, quia fur est sacrorum.

For he is thus judged as a sacrilegious man, because he is a thief of sacred things.

[23] Repetundarum accusatur, qui pecunias a sociis cepit. In hoc iudicio reus si ante moriatur, in bona eius iudicium redditur.

[23] One is accused on the charge of extortions (repetundae), who has taken monies from the allies. In this judgment, if the defendant dies beforehand, judgment is rendered against his goods (estate).

[24] Incesti iudicium in virgines sacratas vel propinquas sanguine constitutum est. Qui enim talibus miscuntur incesti, id est incasti habentur.

[24] The judgment of incest has been established with respect to consecrated virgins or blood-relatives. For those who mingle with such are held incestuous, that is, unchaste.

[25] Maiestatis reatu tenentur hi qui regiam maiestatem laeserunt vel violaverunt, vel qui rempublicam prodiderunt vel cum hostibus consenserunt.

[25] Those are held liable under the charge of Majesty who have injured or violated the royal majesty, or who have betrayed the Republic, or have consented with the enemies.

[26] Piaculum dictum pro eo quod expiari potest; commissa sunt enim quae erant quoquo ordine expianda.

[26] Piaculum is said for that which can be expiated; for the committed offenses are those which had to be expiated by whatever rite.

XXVII. DE POENIS IN LEGIBVS CONSTITVTIS.

27. ON THE PENALTIES ESTABLISHED IN THE LAWS.

[1] Dupliciter malum appellatur: unum, quod homo facit, alterum, quod patitur. Quod facit, peccatum est; quod patitur, poena. Malum autem tunc plenum est, cum et praeteritum est et inpendet, ut sit et dolor et metus.

[1] “Evil” is called in a twofold way: one, which a man does; the other, which he suffers. What he does is sin; what he suffers is penalty. But evil is then complete, when it is both past and impending, so that there is both pain and fear.

[2] Poena dicta quod puniat. Est autem epithetum nomen, et sine adiectione non habet plenum sensum: adicis poena carceris, poena exilii, poena mortis, et inples sensum.

[2] Penalty is so called because it punishes. It is, moreover, an epithet-noun, and without an addition it does not have a full sense: you add penalty of prison, penalty of exile, penalty of death, and you complete the sense.

[3] Supplicium proprie dictum non qui quoquo modo punitur, sed ita damnatur ut bona eius consecrentur et in publico redigantur. Nam supplicia dicebantur supplicamenta. Et supplicium dicitur, de cuius damnatione delibatur aliquid Deo; unde et supplicare.

[3] Supplicium is properly said not of one who is punished in whatever way, but of one who is condemned in such a manner that his goods are consecrated and reduced into the public. For supplicia were called "supplicaments." And it is called supplicium, from whose condemnation something is skimmed off as an offering to God; whence also to supplicate.

[4] Octo genera poenarum in legibus contineri Tullius scribit: id est damnum, vincula, verbera, talionem, ignominiam, exilium, servitutem et mortem. His namque poenis vindicatur omne perpetratum peccatum.

[4] Tullius writes that eight kinds of punishments are contained in the laws: that is, damage, bonds, beatings, talion, ignominy, exile, servitude, and death. For by these punishments every perpetrated sin is punished.

[5] Damnum a diminutione rei vocatum.

[5] Damage is called from the diminution of a thing.

[6] Vincula a vinciendo, id est artando dicta, eo quod constringant atque retineant; vel quia vi ligant.

[6] Bonds are called from binding, that is, from tightening, because they constrict and retain; or because they bind by force.

[7] Conpedes dicti quia continent pedes.

[7] “Conpedes” are so called because they contain the feet.

[8] Peducae sunt laquei quibus pedes inlaqueantur, dictae a pedibus capiendis.

[8] Peducae are nooses by which the feet are ensnared, named from catching feet.

[9] Catenae autem, quod capiendo teneant utraque vestigia, ne progrediantur. Item catenae, quod se capiendo teneant plurimis nodis.

[9] Chains, moreover, because by capturing they hold both feet, lest they progress. Likewise chains, because by capturing one another they hold themselves with very many knots.

[10] Manicae sunt vincula quibus manus capiuntur; licet et manicae tunicarum sunt.

[10] Manacles are bonds by which the hands are captured; also, manicae are the sleeves of tunics.

[11] Nervi.

[11] Sinews.

[12] Boia est torques damnatorum, quasi iugum in bove ex genere vinculorum est.

[12] The boia is the torque of the condemned, like a yoke on an ox; it is of the genus of bonds.

[13] Carcer, in quo custodiuntur noxii. Et dictus carcer quod eo homines coerceantur includanturque, quasi arcer, ab arcendo scilicet. Locum autem in quo servantur noxii, carcerem dicimus numero tantum singulari; unde vero emittuntur quadrigae, carceres vocamus numero tantum plurali.

[13] Prison, in which the guilty are kept under guard. And it is called carcer because in it men are coerced and enclosed, as if arcer, namely from arcere. We call the place in which the guilty are kept carcer only in the singular number; but the place from which the four-horse chariots are released we call carceres only in the plural number.

[14] Verbera dicta, quia cum agitantur, aerem verberant. Hinc flagra et plagae et flagella, quia cum flatu et strepitu in corpore sonant. Nam plagae, quasi flagae; sed plagae et flagra primae positionis sunt, flagella autem per diminutionem dicta.

[14] Blows (verbera) are so called because, when they are brandished, they beat the air. Hence flagra and plagae and flagella, because with a blowing and a clatter they resound upon the body. For plagae, as it were flagae; but plagae and flagra are of the first position, whereas flagella are so called by diminution.

[15] Anguilla est qua coercentur in scholis pueri, quae vulgo scotica dicitur.

[15] The anguilla is that by which boys are coerced in schools, which in the vulgar tongue is called scotica.

[16] Fustes sunt quibus iuvenes pro criminibus feriuntur, appellati quod praefixi in fossis stent; quos palos rustici vocant.

[16] Cudgels are those with which youths are struck for crimes, so named because, being fixed in pits, they stand; which the rustics call pales.

[17] Vectes dicti quod manibus vectentur, unde ostia saxaque velluntur; sed hi ad poenas legum non pertinent.

[17] Levers are so called because they are borne by the hands, whence doors and rocks are wrenched loose; but these do not pertain to the penalties of the laws.

[18] Virgae sunt summitates frondium arborumque, dictae quod virides sint, vel quod vim habeant arguendi; quae si lenis fuerit, virga est; si certe nodosa vel aculeata, scorpio rectissimo nomine, quia arcuato vulnere in corpus infigitur.

[18] Rods are the summits of foliage and of trees, so called because they are verdant, or because they have the power of correcting; which, if it be gentle, is a rod; but if indeed knotty or aculeate, it is, by a most correct name, a scorpion, because with an arcuate wound it is infixed into the body.

[19] Ictus proprie flagellorum sunt, ab agitando vocati.

[19] Blows are properly those of scourges (flagella), so called from agitating.

[20] Vngulae dictae quod effodiant. Haec et fidiculae, quia his rei in eculeo torquentur, ut fides inveniatur.

[20] “Ungulae” are so called because they dig out. These are also “fidiculae,” because by these the accused are tormented on the “eculeus” (the rack), so that “fides” may be found.

[21] Eculeus autem dictus quod extendat.

[21] The rack, however, is so called because it stretches.

[22] Tormenta vero, quod torquendo mentem inveniant.

[22] Torments indeed, because by twisting they discover the mind.

[23] Est et latomia supplicii genus ad verberandum aptum, inventum a Tarquinio Superbo ad poenam sceleratorum. Iste enim prior latomias, tormenta, fustes, metalla atque exilia adinvenit, et ipse prior regibus exilium meruit.

[23] There is also the latomy, a kind of punishment suited for beating, invented by Tarquinius Superbus for the penalty of the wicked. For that man first devised latomies, torments, cudgels, mines, and exiles; and he himself, first among kings, deserved exile.

[24] Talio est similitudo vindictae, ut taliter quis patiatur ut fecit. Hoc enim et natura et lege est institutum, ut 'laedentem similis vindicta sequatur.' Vnde et illud est legis (Matth. 5,38): 'Ocutum pro oculo, dentem pro dente.' Talio autem non solum ad iniuriam referendam, sed etiam pro beneficio reddendo ponitur.

[24] Talion is a likeness of vengeance, that someone should suffer in such a manner as he did. For this has been instituted both by nature and by law, that 'a similar vengeance should follow the one injuring.' Whence also that is of the Law (Matt. 5:38): 'Eye for eye, tooth for tooth.' Moreover, talion is set not only for returning an injury, but also for repaying a benefit.

Est enim communis sermo et iniuriae et beneficentiae.

For it is a common expression both of injury and of beneficence.

[25] Ignominium, eo quod desinat habere honestatis nomen is qui in aliquo crimine deprehenditur. Dictum est autem ignominium quasi sine nomine, sicut ignarus sine scientia, sicut ignobilis sine nobilitate.

[25] Ignominy, for the reason that he who is apprehended in some crime ceases to have the name of honesty. It is said “ignominy” as if “without-name,” just as “ignorant” is “without knowledge,” and “ignoble” is “without nobility.”

[26] Hoc quoque et infamium, quasi sine bona fama. Fama autem dicta quia fando, id est loquendo, pervagatur per traduces linguarum et aurium serpens. Est autem nomen et bonarum rerum et malarum.

[26] This too is infamy, as if without good fame. Fame moreover is so called because by speaking, that is, by talking, it pervades, creeping through the conduits of tongues and ears. It is, moreover, a name both of good things and of bad.

Nam fama felicitatis interdum est, ut illud, 'inlustris fama,' quod laus est: malarum, ut Vergilius (Aen. 4,174):

For fame is sometimes of felicity, as that phrase, 'illustrious fame,' which is praise: of evil things, as Vergil (Aen. 4,174):

Fama, malum qua non aliud velocius ullum.

Fame, an evil than which no other is swifter.

[27] Fama autem nomen certilocum non habet, quia plurimum mendax est, adiciens multa vel demutans de veritate: quae tamdiu vivit, quamdiu non probat. At ubi probaveris, esse cessat, et exinde res nominatur, non fama.

[27] Rumor, moreover, has no fixed designation, because it is for the most part mendacious, adding many things or altering them from the truth: it lives as long as it is not verified. But once you have verified it, it ceases to be, and thereafter the thing is named, not the rumor.

[28] Exilium dictum quasi extra solum. Nam exul dicitur qui extra solum est. Vnde postliminium redeuntibus, hoc est de exilio reducendis, qui sunt eiecti in iniuria, id est extra limen patriae.

[28] Exile is so called as if “outside the soil.” For an exul is said to be one who is outside the soil. Whence the postliminium for those returning, that is, for those to be led back from exile, who have been cast out in injury, that is, beyond the threshold of the fatherland.

Dividitur autem exilium in relegatis et deportatis.

However, exile is divided into the relegated and the deported.

[29] Relegatus est, quem bona sua sequuntur: deportatus, quem non sequuntur.

[29] A relegated man is one whom his own goods follow: a deported man, one whom they do not follow.

[30] Proscriptio exilii procul damnatio, quasi porro scriptio. Item proscriptus, quia palam scriptus.

[30] Proscription is a condemnation to exile far away, as if a writing-forward. Likewise “proscribed,” because written publicly.

[31] Metallum est ubi exules depo(r)tantur ad eruendam venam marmoraque secanda in crustis.

[31] A mine is where exiles are deported to dig out the vein and to have marbles cut into veneers (crusts).

[32] Servitus a servando vocata. Apud antiquos enim qui in bello a morte servabantur, servi vocabantur. Haec est sola malorum omnium postrema, quae liberis omni supplicio gravior est; nam ubi libertas periit, una ibi perierunt et omnia.

[32] Servitude is called from “saving.” For among the ancients, those who in war were saved from death were called slaves. This is the sole last of all evils, which to the free is heavier than any punishment; for where liberty has perished, there together all things also have perished.

[33] Mortium vero diversi casus, ex quibus crux vel patibulum, in quo homines adpensi cruciantur vel patiuntur; unde et nomina habent.

[33] As for deaths, there are diverse cases, among which are the cross or the gibbet, on which men, being hung up, are excruciated or suffer; whence also they have their names.

[34] Patibulum enim vulgo furca dicitur, quasi ferens caput. Suspensum enim et stranguilatum ex eo exanimat; sed patibuli minor poena quam crucis. Nam patibulum adpensos statim exanimat, crux autem subfixos diu cruciat; unde et in Evangelio latronibus, ut morerentur et de ligno ante sabbatum deponerentur, crura confracta sunt, quia ligno suspensi cito mori non poterant.

[34] For the patibulum is commonly called the furca, as if “bearing the head.” For the one suspended and strangled from it it renders lifeless; but the penalty of the patibulum is lesser than that of the cross. For the patibulum immediately kills those hung up, whereas the cross long torments those affixed; whence also in the Gospel the legs of the robbers, so that they might die and be taken down from the wood before the sabbath, were broken, because, suspended on the wood, they could not die quickly.

[35] In ipso quoque genere necis differt. Crudelius est enim in aqua spiritum torquentes extingui, ignibus uri, frigore et fame necari, canibus et bestiis exponi. Nam ferro mori aetas quoque maior optavit.

[35] Even within the very kind of killing it differs. For it is more cruel to be extinguished in water, the breath being tormented; to be burned by fires; to be slain by cold and hunger; to be exposed to dogs and wild beasts. For to die by iron even the elder age also preferred.

Gladius enim sine graviore cruciatu conpendiosa morte vitam finire novit.

For the sword knows how to end life by a compendious death, without more grievous torment.

[36] Culleum est parricidale vasculum ab occulendo, id est claudendo dictum. Est autem uter ex corio factus, in quo parricidae cum simio et gallo et serpente inclusi in mare praecipitantur. Omnium autem istarum mortium genus animadversio nominatur.

[36] The culleus is a parricidal little vessel, so called from occulendo, that is, from closing. It is moreover a wineskin made of hide, in which parricides, enclosed with a monkey, a cock, and a serpent, are cast headlong into the sea. And the class of all these deaths is called animadversion.

[37] Animadversio enim est, quando iudex reum punit; et dicitur animadvertere, id est animum illuc advertere, intendere utique ad puniendum reum, quia iudex est.

[37] For animadversion is when a judge punishes the defendant; and it is said “to animadvert,” that is, to turn the mind thither, indeed to aim at punishing the defendant, because he is a judge.

[38] Ideo autem Romani aquam et ignem interdicebant quibusdam damnatis, quia aer et aqua cunctis patent et omnibus data sunt; ut illi non fruerentur quod omnibus per naturam concessum est.

[38] For this reason, moreover, the Romans interdicted water and fire to certain condemned persons, because air and water are open to all and have been given to everyone; so that they might not enjoy what has been conceded by nature to all.

XXVIII. DE CHRONICAE VOCABVLO.

28. ON THE NAME OF THE CHRONICLE.

[1] Chronica Graece dicitur quae Latine temporum series appellatur, qualem apud Graecos Eusebius Caesariensis episcopus edidit, et Hieronymus presbyter in Latinam linguam convertit. CHRONOS enim Graece, Latine tempus interpretatur.

[1] Chronica is said in Greek, which in Latin is called a series of times, of the kind which among the Greeks Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, published, and Hieronymus, presbyter, translated into the Latin tongue. For CHRONOS in Greek, in Latin is interpreted as time.

XXIX. DE MOMENTIS ET HORIS.

29. ON MOMENTS AND HOURS.

[1] Tempora autem momentis, horis, diebus, mensibus, annis, lustris, saeculis, aetatibus dividuntur. Momentum est minimum atque angustissimum tempus, a motu siderum dictum.

[1] Times, moreover, are divided into moments, hours, days, months, years, lustrums, centuries, ages. A moment is the least and most constricted time, so called from the motion of the stars.

[2] Est enim extremitas horae in brevibus intervallis, cum aliquid sibi cedit atque succedit. Hora Graecum nomen est, et tamen Latinum sonat. Hora enim finis est temporis, sicut et ora sunt finis mans, fluviorum, vestimentorum.

[2] For it is the extremity of the hour in brief intervals, when something yields to it and something succeeds. Hora is a Greek name, and yet it sounds Latin. For hora is the end of time, just as ora are the ends of hands, of rivers, of garments.

XXX. DE DIEBVS.

30. ON DAYS.

[1] Dies est praesentia solis, sive sol supra terras, sicut nox sol sub terris. Vt enim dies aut nox sit, causa est aut supra terram sol, aut sub terris. Dies legitimus viginti quattuor horarum, usque dum dies et nox spatia sui cursus ab oriente usque ad alium orientalem solem caeli volubilitate concludat.

[1] Day is the presence of the sun, that is, the sun above the lands, just as night is the sun beneath the lands. For, in order that it be day or night, the cause is either the sun above the earth or beneath the earth. A legitimate day is twenty-four hours, until day and night, by the heaven’s volubility (revolving), conclude the spans of their course from the east to another eastern sun.

Abusive autem dies unus est spatium ab oriente sole usque ad occidentem.

But abusively, a single day is the span from the sun’s orient to its occident.

[2] Sunt autem diei spatia duo, interdianum atque nocturnum; et est dies quidem horarum viginti quattuor, spatium autem horarum duodecim.

[2] There are, moreover, two spans of the day, the diurnal and the nocturnal; and the day indeed is of twenty-four hours, but a span is of twelve hours.

[3] Vocatus autem dies a parte meliore. Vnde et in usu est ut sine commemoratione noctis numerum dicamus dierum, sicut et in lege divina scriptum est (Genes. 1,5): 'Factum est vespere et mane dies unus.'

[3] But the day is called from the better part. Whence also it is in use that, without commemoration of night, we state the number of days, just as also in the divine law it is written (Gen. 1:5): 'It was evening and morning, one day.'

[4] Dies secundum Aegyptios inchoat ab occasu solis: secundum Persas ab ortu solis: secundum Athenienses a sexta hora diei; secundum Romanos a media nocte. Vnde et tunc gallicinium est, quorum vox diei ostendit praeconium, quando et mesonyctius afflatus fit.

[4] The day, according to the Egyptians, begins from the sun’s setting; according to the Persians, from the sun’s rising; according to the Athenians, from the sixth hour of the day; according to the Romans, from midnight. Whence also then is the cockcrow, whose voice shows the proclamation of the day, when likewise the mesonyctial afflatus occurs.

[5] Dies dicti a diis, quorum nomina Romani quibusdam sideribus sacraverunt. Primum enim diem a Sole appellaverunt, qui princeps est omniun siderum, sicut et idem dies caput est cunctorum dierum.

[5] Days are named from the gods, whose names the Romans consecrated to certain stars. For they called the first day from the Sun, which is the chief of all the stars, just as that same day is the head of all the days.

[6] Secundum a Luna, quae Soli et splendore et magnitudine proxima est, et ex eo mutuat lumen. Tertium ab stella Martis, quae Vesper vocatur. Quartum ab stella Mercurii, quam quidam candidum circulum dicunt.

[6] The second from the Moon, which is nearest to the Sun both in splendor and in magnitude, and borrows light from it. The third from the star of Mars, which is called Vesper. The fourth from the star of Mercury, which some say is a bright circle.

[7] Quintum ab stella Iovis, quam Phaethontem aiunt. Sextum a Veneris stella, quam Luciferum asserunt, quae inter omnia sidera plus lucis habet. Septimus ab stella Saturni, quae sexto caelo locata triginta annis fertur explere cursum suum.

[7] The fifth from the star of Jupiter, which they say is Phaethon. The sixth from the star of Venus, which they assert is Lucifer, which among all the stars has more light. The seventh from the star of Saturn, which, located in the sixth heaven, is said to complete its course in 30 years.

[8] Proinde autem ex his septem stellis nomina dierum gentiles dederunt, eo quod per eosdem aliquid sibi effici existimarent, dicentes habere a Sole spiritum, a Luna corpus, a Mercurio ingenium et linguam, a Venere voluptatem, a Marte sanguinem, a Iove temperantiam, a Saturno humorem. Talis quippe extitit gentilium stultitia, qui sibi finxerunt tam ridiculosa figmenta.

[8] Accordingly, from these seven stars the gentiles gave the names of the days, on the ground that through these same they thought something would be effected for them, saying that they have from the Sun spirit, from the Moon body, from Mercury ingenuity and tongue, from Venus pleasure, from Mars blood, from Jupiter temperance, from Saturn humor. Such indeed was the stupidity of the gentiles, who fashioned for themselves such ridiculous figments.

[9] Apud Hebraeos autem dies prima una sabbati dicitur, qui apud nos dies dominicus est, quem gentiles Soli dicaverunt. Secunda sabbati secunda feria, quem saeculares diem Lunae vocant. Tertia sabbati tertia feria, quem diem illi Martis vocant.

[9] Among the Hebrews, however, the first day is called the first of the sabbath, which among us is the Lord’s Day, which the Gentiles dedicated to the Sun. The second of the sabbath is the second feria, which seculars call the day of the Moon. The third of the sabbath is the third feria, which day they call of Mars.

Quarta sabbati quarta feria, qui Mercurii dies dicitur a paganis.

The fourth of the sabbath is the fourth feria, which is called the day of Mercury by the pagans.

[10] Quinta sabbati quinta feria est, id est quintus a die dominico, qui apud gentiles Iovis vocatur. Sexta sabbati sexta feria dicitur, qui apud eosdem paganos Veneris nuncupatur. Sabbatum autem septimus a dominico dies est, quem gentiles Saturno dicaverunt et Saturni nominaverunt.

[10] The fifth of the sabbath is the fifth feria, that is, the fifth from the Lord’s Day, which among the pagans is called Jove’s. The sixth of the sabbath is called the sixth feria, which among those same pagans is named Venus’s. But the Sabbath is the seventh day from the Lord’s Day, which the pagans dedicated to Saturn and named Saturn’s.

Sabbatum autem ex Hebraeo in Latinum requies interpretatur, eo quod Deus in eo requievisset ab omnibus operibus suis.

The Sabbath, however, from Hebrew into Latin is interpreted as "rest," because God had rested on it from all his works.

[11] Melius autem in vocabulis dierum de ore Christiano ritus loquendi ecclesiasticus procedit. Tamen si quem forte consuetudo traxerit, ut illud exeat ex ore quod inprobat corde, intellegat illos omnes, de quorum nominibus appellati sunt hi dies, homines fuisse: et propter beneficia quaedam mortalia, quia plurimum potuerunt et eminuerunt in hoc saeculo, delati sunt eis ab amatoribus suis divini honores et in diebus et in sideribus; sed primum a nominibus hominum sidera nuncupata, et a sideribus dies sunt appellati.

[11] But better, in the names of the days, does the ecclesiastical rite of speaking proceed from a Christian mouth. Nevertheless, if perchance custom should drag someone, so that that goes forth from the mouth which he disapproves in his heart, let him understand that all those, from whose names these days have been called, were men: and on account of certain mortal benefactions, because they were very powerful and eminent in this age, divine honors were bestowed upon them by their devotees both in the days and in the stars; but first the stars were named from the names of men, and from the stars the days were called.

[12] A fando autem feriae nuncupatae sunt, quod sit in eis nobis tempus dictionis, id est in divino vel humano officio fari. Sed ex his festos dies hominum causa institutos, feriatos divinorum sacrorum.

[12] And the feriae are named from speaking, because in them there is for us a time of diction, that is, to speak in a divine or human office. But of these, the festal days have been instituted for the sake of men, the holidays for divine sacred rites.

[13] Partes diei tres sunt: mane, meridies et suprema.

[13] The parts of the day are three: morning, meridian, and the suprema (the last part of the day).

[14] Mane lux matura et plena, nec iam crepusculum. Et dictum mane a mano; manum enim antiqui bonum dicebant. Quid enim melius luce?

[14] Morning: the light mature and full, and no longer crepuscle. And it is called “morning” from mano; for the ancients said manum for “good.” For what is better than light?

Alii mane aestimant vocari a Manibus, quorum conversatio a luna ad terram est. Alii putant ab aere, quia manus, id est rarus, est atque perspicuus.

Others estimate that “morning” is called from the Manes, whose going-about is from the moon to the earth. Others think it is from “air,” because it is manus, that is, rarefied, and perspicuous.

[15] Meridies dicta quasi medidies, hoc est medius dies; vel quia tunc purior dies est. Merum enim purum dicitur. In toto enim die nihil clarius meridie, quando sol de medio caelo rutilat et omnem orbem pari claritate inlustrat.

[15] Midday is called as if “medidies,” that is, the middle day; or because then the day is purer. For “merum” is called “pure.” For in the whole day nothing is more clear than at midday, when the sun from the middle heaven glows and illuminates the whole orb with equal clarity.

[16] Suprema est postrema pars diei, quando sol cursum suum in occasum vertit: dicta quod superest ad partem ultimam diei.

[16] The suprema is the last part of the day, when the sun turns its course toward the occident: called so because it is what remains to the ultimate part of the day.

[17] Serum vocatum a clausis seris, quando iam nox venit, ut unusquisque somno tutior sit.

[17] The late time is called “serum” from closed bolts, when now night comes, so that each person may be safer in sleep.

[18] Hodie quasi hoc die; et quotidie, non cotidie, ut sit quot diebus.

[18] Today, as if ‘on this day’; and ‘every day’ (quotidie), not ‘cotidie’, so that it is from ‘how many days’ (quot diebus).

[19] Cras quod est postea.

[19] Tomorrow, which is afterwards.

[20] Hesternum est pridie; et dictum hesternum ab eo quod iam dies ipse sit a nobis extraneus et praetereundo alienus.

[20] Yesterday is the day-before; and it is called “yesterday” from the fact that now the day itself is extraneous to us and, by passing-by, alien.

[21] Pridie autem quasi priori die.

[21] Pridie, however, as if on the prior day.

[22] Perendie, id est per ante diem, vel in antecessum, id est prius.

[22] Perendie, that is through-before-day, or in advance, that is prior.

XXXI. DE NOCTE.

31. ON NIGHT.

[1] Nox a nocendo dicta, eo quod oculis noceat. Quae idcirco lunae ac siderum lucem habet, ne indecora esset, et ut consolaretur omnes nocte operantes, et ut quibusdam animantibus, quae lucem solis ferre non possunt, ad sufficientiam temperaretur.

[1] Night is called from “harming,” because it harms the eyes. Which for that reason has the light of the moon and of the stars, lest it be indecorous, and so that it might console all working by night, and so that for certain animate beings, who cannot bear the light of the sun, it might be tempered to sufficiency.

[2] Noctis autem et diei alternatio propter vicissitudinem dormiendi vigilandique effecta est, et ut operis diurni laborem noctis requies temperet.

[2] Moreover, the alternation of night and of day was effected on account of the vicissitude of sleeping and keeping vigil, and so that the repose of night may temper the labor of diurnal work.

[3] Noctem autem fieri, aut quia longo itinere lassatur sol, et cum ad ultimum caeli spatium pervenit, elanguescit ac tabefactus efflat suos ignes; aut quia eadem vi sub terras cogitur qua super terras pertulit lumen, et sic umbra terrae noctem facit. Vnde et Vergilius (Aen. 2,250):

[3] But night comes to be either because by a long journey the sun grows weary, and when it arrives at the farthest expanse of heaven, it grows faint and, wasting away, breathes out its own fires; or because by the same force it is driven under the earth by which it bore its light over the earth, and thus the earth’s shadow makes night. Whence also Vergil (Aen. 2,250):

Ruit Oceano nox,

Night rushes from Ocean,

involvens umbra magna terramque polumque.

enfolding with a great shadow both earth and sky.

[4] Noctis partes septem sunt, id est vesper, crepusculum, conticinium, intempestum, gallicinium, matutinum, diluculum.

[4] The parts of the night are seven, that is: vesper, crepuscule, conticinium, the untimely hour, cockcrow, matutinal, daybreak.

[5] Vesperum ab stella occidentali vocatum, quae solem occiduum sequitur et tenebras sequentes praecedit. De qua Vergilius (Aen. 1,374):

[5] Vesper is named from the western star, which follows the setting sun and goes before the following darkness. About which Virgil (Aen. 1,374):

Ante diem clauso conponit vesper Olympo.

Vesper, with Olympus closed, brings the day to rest beforehand.

[6] Tenebras autem dictas, quod teneant umbras.

[6] But darkness is so called, because it holds the shadows.

[7] Crepusculum est dubia lux. Nam creperum dubium dicimus, hoc est inter lucem et tenebras.

[7] Crepuscule is a doubtful light. For we call creperum “doubtful,” that is, between light and darkness.

[8] Conticinium est quando omnes silent. Conticescere enim silere est.

[8] Conticinium is when all are silent. For to conticesce is to be silent.

[9] Intempestum est medium et inactuosum noctis tempus, quando agi nihil potest et omnia sopore quieta sunt. Nam tempus per se non intellegitur, nisi per actus humanos.

[9] The intempestive time is the middle and inactive time of the night, when nothing can be done and all things are quiet with sleep. For time by itself is not understood, except through human acts.

[10] Medium autem noctis actum caret. Ergo intempesta inactuosa, quasi sine tempore, hoc est sine actu, per quem dinoscitur tempus; unde est: 'Intempestive venisti.' Ergo intempesta dicitur quia caret tempora, id est actum.

[10] But the middle of the night lacks act. Therefore the intempesta is inactive, as if without time, that is, without act, through which time is discerned; whence: 'Intempestive venisti.' Therefore it is called intempesta because it lacks time, that is, act.

[11] Gallicinium propter gallos lucis praenuntios dictum.

[11] Cockcrow is so called on account of the cocks, pre-announcers of light.

[12] Matutinum est inter abscessum tenebrarum et aurorae adventum; et dictum matutinum quod hoc tempus inchoante mane sit.

[12] The matutine is between the withdrawal of the darkness and the advent of dawn; and it is called matutine because at this time the morning is inchoate.

[13] Diluculum quasi iam incipiens parva diei lux. Haec et aurora, quae solem praecedit.

[13] Daybreak, as if the small light of the day already beginning. This also is the aurora, which precedes the sun.

[14] Est autem aurora diei clarescentis exordium et primus splendor aeris, qui Graece NOS dicitur; quam nos per derivationem auroram vocamus, quasi eororam. Vnde est illud (Virg. Aen. 2,417):

[14] Now the aurora is the exordium of the day growing bright and the first splendor of the air, which in Greek is called NOS; which we by derivation call aurora, as if eorora. Whence is that (Virg. Aen. 2,417):

et laetus Eoos

and the glad Eous

Eurus equis.

Eurus for horses.

et (Virg. Aen. 1,489):

and (Virgil, Aeneid 1,489):

Eoasque acies.

and the Eoan battle-lines.

XXXII. DE HEBDOMADA.

32. ON THE WEEK.

[1] Hebdomada dicta a numero septem dierum, quorum repetitione et menses et anni et saecula peraguntur; EPTA enim Graeci septem dicunt. Hanc nos septimanam vocamus, quasi septem luces. Nam mane lux est.

[1] The hebdomad is called from the number of seven days, by the repetition of which months and years and ages are accomplished; for the Greeks say hepta (EPTA) for seven. We call this the “septimana,” as if “seven lights.” For in the morning there is light.

Octavus autem dies idem primus est, ad quem reditur et a quo rursus hebdomadae series orditur.

Moreover, the eighth day is the same as the first, to which one returns and from which again the series of the hebdomad begins.

XXXIII. DE MENSIBVS.

33. ON THE MONTHS.

[1] Mensis nomen est Graecum de lunae nomine tractum. Luna enim MENE Graeco sermone vocatur; unde et apud Hebraeos menses legitimi non ex solis circulo, sed ex lunae cursu enumerantur, quod est de nova ad novam.

[1] The name “month” is Greek, drawn from the name of the moon. For the moon is called MENE in the Greek tongue; whence also among the Hebrews the legitimate months are enumerated not from the circle of the sun, but from the course of the moon, that is, from new to new (moon).

[2] Aegyptii autem primi propter lunae velociorem cursum, et ne error conputationis eius velocitate accideret, ex solis cursu diem mensis adinvenerunt; quoniam tardior solis motus facilius poterat conprehendi.

[2] But the Egyptians first, on account of the moon’s more rapid course, and lest an error of computation should occur through its velocity, from the sun’s course devised the day of the month; since the slower motion of the sun could more easily be comprehended.

[3] Ianuarius mensis a Iano dictus, cuius fuit a gentilibus consecratus; vel quia limes et ianua sit anni. Vnde et bifrons idem Ianus pingitur, ut introitus anni et exitus demonstraretur.

[3] The month January is named from Janus, to whom it was consecrated by the gentiles; or because it is the boundary and door of the year. Whence also the same Janus is painted two-faced, so that the entrance of the year and the exit might be shown.

[4] Februarius nuncupatur a Februo, id est PIutone, cui eo mense sacrificabatur. Nam Ianuarium diis superis, Februarium diis Manibus Romani consecraverunt. Ergo Februarius a Februo, id est Plutone, non a febre, id est aegritudine nominatus.

[4] February is named from Februus, that is, Pluto, to whom in that month sacrifice was offered. For the Romans consecrated January to the gods above, and February to the Manes. Therefore February is named from Februus, that is, Pluto, not from fever, that is, sickness.

[5] Martius appellatus propter Martem Romanae gentis auctorem, vel quod eo tempore cuncta animantia agantur ad marem et ad concumbendi voluptatem.

[5] March is appellated on account of Mars, the author of the Roman people, or because at that time all living creatures are driven toward the male and to the pleasure of lying together.

[6] Idem appellatur et mensis novorum, quia anni initium mensis est Martius. Idem et novum ver ab indiciis scilicet germinum, quia in eo viridantibus fructibus novis transactorum probatur occasus.

[6] The same is also appellated the month of new things, because the inception of the year is the month March. Likewise it is the new spring, from the indices, namely, of the germinal buds, because in it, with verdant new fruits, the decline of what is past is proved.

[7] Aprilis pro Venere dicitur, quasi Aphrodis; Graece enim AFRODITE Venus dicitur; vel quia hoc mense omnia aperiuntur in florem, quasi Aperilis.

[7] April is said on account of Venus, as it were “Aphrodis”; for in Greek Aphrodite is said for Venus; or because in this month all things are opened into flower, as it were “Aperilis.”

[8] Maius dictus a Maia matre Mercurii; vel a maioribus natu, qui erant principes reipublicae. Nam hunc mensem maioribus, sequentem vero minoribus Romani consecraverunt.

[8] May is said to be named from Maia, the mother of Mercury; or from the elders by birth, who were the princes of the republic. For the Romans consecrated this month to the elders, and the following indeed to the minors.

[9] Vnde et Iunius dicitur. Antea enim populus in centurias seniorum et iuniorum divisus erat.

[9] Whence also June is called. For previously the people was divided into centuries of seniors and juniors.

[10] Iulius vero et Augustus de honoribus hominum, Iulii et Augusti Caesarum, nuncupati sunt. Nam prius Quintilis et Sextilis vocabantur: Quintilis, quia quintus erat a Martio, quem principem anni testantur esse Romani; Sextilis similiter, quod sextus.

[10] Julius and Augustus, in fact, were named from the honors of the men Julius and Augustus, the Caesars. For previously they were called Quintilis and Sextilis: Quintilis, because it was the fifth from March, which the Romans attest to be the chief of the year; Sextilis similarly, because the sixth.

[11] September nomen habet a numero et imbre, quia septimus est a Martio et imbres habet. Sic et October, November atque December ex numero et imbribus acceperunt vocabula; quem numerum decurrentem December finit, pro eo quod denarius numerus praecedentes numeros claudit.

[11] September has its name from number and rain, because it is seventh from March and has rains. Thus also October, November, and December received their vocables from number and rains; which number, running its course, December finishes, for the reason that the denary number closes the preceding numbers.

[12] Kalendas autem, Nonas et Idus propter festos dies Romani instituerunt; vel propter officia magistratuum. In his enim diebus conveniebatur in urbibus.

[12] Moreover, the Romans instituted the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides on account of festival days; or on account of the duties of the magistrates. For on these days there was convening in the cities.

[13] Quidam autem Kalendas a colendo appellari existimant. Apud veteres enim omnium mensuum principia colebantur, sicut et apud Hebraeos. Idus autem plerique Latinorum ab edendo dictum putant, quod hi dies apud veteres epularum essent.

[13] Some, however, think that the Kalends are named from colere (“to cultivate/celebrate”). For among the ancients the beginnings of all the months were cultivated/observed, just as also among the Hebrews. The Ides, moreover, most of the Latins think to be said from edere (“to eat”), because these days among the ancients were days of banquets.

[14] Nonae a nundinis vocatae. Nundinae enim sunt publicae conventiones sive mercimonia.

[14] The Nones are named from the nundinae. For nundinae are public conventions or markets.

XXXIV. DE SOLSTITIIS ET AEQVINOCTIIS.

34. ON SOLSTICES AND EQUINOXES.

[1] Solstitium dictum quasi solis statio, quod tunc sole stante crescant dies vel noctes. Aequinoctium appellatum quod tunc dies et nox horarum spatio aequali consistunt.

[1] Solstice is so called as if “the sun’s station,” because then, with the sun standing, the days or the nights grow. Equinox is appellated because then day and night stand in an equal span of hours.

[2] Duo sunt autem solstitia: unum aestivum, VIII Kal. Iul., de quo tempore remeare sol ad inferiores incipit circulos; aliud hiemale, VIII Kal. Ian., quo tempore sol altiores incipit circulos petere.

[2] There are, moreover, two solstices: one estival, the 8th day before the Kalends of July, at which time the sun begins to return to the lower circles; the other hiemal, the 8th day before the Kalends of January, at which time the sun begins to seek the higher circles.

Vnde hiemalis solstitii dies minimus, sicut aestivi maximus invenitur.

Whence the day of the winter solstice is found to be the smallest, just as that of the summer the greatest.

[3] Item duo sunt aequinoctia, unum vernale et aliud autumnale, quae Graeci ISEMERIAS vocant. Sunt autem haec aequinoctia die VIII Kal. Apr.

[3] Likewise there are two equinoxes, one vernal and the other autumnal, which the Greeks call ISEMERIAS. Now these equinoxes are on the 8th day before the Kalends of April.

et VIII Kal. Oct., quia annus olim in duas tantum partes dividebatur, hoc est in aestivum et hiemale solstitium, et in duo hemisphaeria.

and on September 24, because the year once was divided into only two parts, that is, into the estival and the hiemal solstices, and into two hemispheres.

XXXV. DE TEMPORIBVS ANNI.

35. ON THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR.

[1] Tempora anni quattuor sunt: ver, aestas, autumnus et hiems. Dicta sunt autem tempora a communionis temperamento, quod invicem se humore, siccitate, calore et frigore temperent. Haec et curricula dicuntur, quia non stant, sed currunt.

[1] The seasons of the year are four: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Moreover, they are called “times” (tempora) from the tempering of a communion/commixture, because they temper one another by moisture, dryness, heat, and cold. These are also called “courses” (curricula), because they do not stand, but run.

[2] Constat autem post factum mundum ex qualitate cursus solis tempora in ternos menses fuisse divisa. Quorum temporum talem veteres faciunt discretionem, ut primo mense ver novum dicatur, secundo adultum, tertio praeceps.

[2] Moreover, it is established that, after the world was made, from the quality of the course of the sun, the seasons were divided into three-month sets. Of which seasons the ancients make such a discrimination: that in the first month spring is called new, in the second adult, in the third headlong.

[3] Sic [et] aestas in suis tribus mensibus, nova, adulta et praeceps. Sic [et] autumnus, novus, adultus et praeceps. Item hiems, nova, adulta et praeceps sive extrema.

[3] Thus [also] the summer in its three months, new, adult, and precipitous. Thus [also] autumn, new, adult, and precipitous. Likewise winter, new, adult, and precipitous or extreme.

Vnde est illud (Virg. Georg. 1,340):

Whence is that (Virgil, Georgics 1,340):

Extremae sub casu hiemis.

At the fall of winter’s extremity.

Ver autem dictum quod viret. Tunc enim post hiemem vestitur tellus herbis, et in florem cuncta rumpuntur.

Spring, however, is named because it is verdant. Then indeed after winter the earth is clothed with grasses, and all things burst into flower.

[4] Aestas dicitur ab aestu, id est a calore; et aestas quasi usta, id est exusta et arida. Nam calor aridus est.

[4] Summer is said to be from aestus, that is, from heat; and aestas as if usta, that is, exust and arid. For heat is arid.

[5] Autumnus a tempestate vocatus quando et folia arborum cadunt et omnia maturescunt.

[5] Autumn is called from the season, when both the leaves of the trees fall and all things ripen.

[6] Hiemem ratio hemisphaerii nuncupavit, quia tunc breviori sol volvitur circulo. Vnde et hoc tempus bruma dicitur, quasi BRACHUS, id est brevis; vel a cibo, quod maior sit tunc vescendi appetitus. Edacitas enim Graece BROMA appellatur; unde et inbrumarii dicuntur quibus fastidium est ciborum.

[6] The rationale of the hemisphere has named winter, because then the sun is revolved in a shorter circle. Whence also this time is called bruma, as if BRACHUS, that is, short; or from food, because then there is a greater appetite for eating. For edacity in Greek is called BROMA; whence also those are called inbrumarii who have a distaste for foods.

[7] Hibernus autem inter hiemem et vernum est, quasi hievernus; qui plerumque a parte totum, hiemem, significat. Haec tempora singulis etiam caeli partibus adscribuntur.

[7] The hibernal, however, is between winter and the vernal season, as if “hievernal”; which for the most part signifies, by the part the whole, “winter.” These times are also ascribed to the several parts of the sky.

[8] Ver quippe orienti datur, quia tunc ex terris omnia oriuntur; aestas vero meridiano, eo quod pars eius calore flagrantior sit; hiems septemtrioni, eo quod frigoribus et perpetuo gelu torpet; autumnus occiduo, propter quod graves morbos habet, unde et tunc omnis folia arborum defluit. Vt autem autumnus abundet morbis, facit hoc confinium frigoris et caloris, et conpugnantia inter se contrariorum aerum.

[8] Spring, to be sure, is assigned to the orient, because then all things arise from the earth; summer, indeed, to the meridian, for that part is more blazing with heat; winter to the septentrion, because it is benumbed by colds and perpetual frost; autumn to the occidental, on account of which it has grave maladies, whence then all the leaves of the trees fall. And that autumn abounds in diseases—this is caused by the border between cold and heat, and the clashing together of contrary airs.

XXXVI. DE ANNIS.

36. ON YEARS.

[1] Annus est solis anfractus, cum peractis trecentis sexaginta quinque diebus ad eadem loca siderum redit. Annus autem dictus quia mensibus in se recurrentibus volvitur. Vnde et anulus [dicitur], quasi annuus, id est circulus, quod in se redeat; [ut] Vergilius (Georg. 2,402):

[1] The year is the sun’s circuit, when, with three hundred and sixty-five days completed, it returns to the same places of the stars. Moreover, it is called “year” because, with the months recurring into itself, it is rolled around. Whence also “ring” [is said], as if “annual,” that is, “circle,” because it returns into itself; [as] Virgil (Georg. 2,402):

Atque in se sua per vestigia volvitur annus.

And the year revolves back upon itself along its own vestiges.

[2] Sic enim apud Aegyptios indicabatur ante inventas litteras picto dracone caudam suam mordente, quia in se recurrit. Alii annum dicunt APO TOU ANANEOUSTHAI, id est ab innovatione; renovatur enim semper.

[2] Thus indeed among the Egyptians, before letters were invented, it was indicated by a painted dragon biting its own tail, because it recurs into itself. Others say the year is from APO TOU ANANEOUSTHAI, that is, from innovation; for it is always renewed.

[3] Tria sunt autem genera annorum. Aut enim lunaris annus est triginta dierum; aut solstitialis, qui duodecim continet menses; aut magnus, omnibus planetis in eundem locum recurrentibus, qui fit post annos solstitiales plurimos.

[3] There are, moreover, three kinds of years. For either a lunar year is of thirty days; or the solstitial (year), which contains twelve months; or the great (year), with all the planets returning into the same place, which comes to be after very many solstitial years.

[4] Aera singulorum annorum est constituta a Caesare Augusto, quando primum censu exagitato Romanum orbem descripsit. Dicta autem aera ex eo, quod omnis orbis aes reddere professus est reipublicae.

[4] The era of individual years was established by Caesar Augustus, when first, after a census had been exacted, he registered the Roman world. Moreover, the era was so called from this: that the whole world professed to render money to the Republic.

XXXVII. DE OLYMPIADIBVS ET LVSTRIS ET IVBILEIS.

37. ON THE OLYMPIADS AND LUSTRUMS AND JUBILEES.

[1] Olympias apud Graecos constituta apud Elidem Graeciae civitatem, Eliis agentibus agonem et quinquennale certamen, quattuor mediis annis vacantibus; et ob hoc Elidum certaminis tempus olympiadem vocaverunt, quadriennio in una olympiade supputato.

[1] The Olympiad among the Greeks was established at Elis, a city of Greece, with the Eleans conducting the agōn and a quinquennial contest, with four intermediate years lying vacant; and on account of this they called the time of the Elean contest an Olympiad, with a four-year period reckoned in one Olympiad.

[2] Lustrum vero est PENTETERIS, id est quinquennium, quod quinto anno dicitur condi propter olympiadas a Romanis; adhuc enim consules, adhuc aera nondum erat. Est enim quinquennale tempus. Ideo vero sic vocatum, eo quod censu per quinquennium in republica peracto urbs Roma lustrabatur.

[2] A lustrum, indeed, is a penteteris (a five-year cycle), that is, a quinquennium, which, on account of the Olympiads, is said by the Romans to be established in the fifth year; for at that time years were still designated by consuls; as yet there was no era. For it is a five-year span. And for this reason it was thus called, because, the census having been completed over a quinquennium in the commonwealth, the city of Rome was lustrated.

[3] Iubileus interpretatur remissionis annus. Est enim Hebraicus et sermo et numerus, qui septenis annorum hebdomadibus, id est, quadraginta novem annis texitur; in quo clangebantur tubae, et ad omnes revertebatur antiqua possessio, debita absolvebantur, confirmabantur libertates.

[3] Jubilee is interpreted as the year of remission. For it is both a Hebrew term and a number, which is woven from seven hebdomads of years, that is, forty-nine years; in which the trumpets were sounded, and the ancestral possession reverted to all, debts were absolved, liberties were confirmed.

[4] Hunc numerum etiam in diebus Pentecosten et ipsi celebramus post Domini resurrectionem, remissa culpa et totius debiti chirographo evacuato, ab omni nexu liberi suscipientes advenientem in nos gratiam Spiritus sancti.

[4] This number also in the days of Pentecost we ourselves celebrate after the Lord’s Resurrection, guilt remitted and the chirograph of the whole debt annulled, free from every bond receiving the grace of the Holy Spirit coming upon us.

XXXVIII. DE SAECVLIS ET AETATIBVS.

38. ON CENTURIES AND AGES.

[1] Saecula generationibus constant; et inde saecula, quod se sequantur: abeuntibus enim aliis alia succedunt. Hunc quidam quinquagesimum annum dicunt, quem Hebraei iubileum vocant.

[1] Ages consist of generations; and thence “ages,” because they follow one another: for as some pass away, others succeed. Some say that this is the fiftieth year, which the Hebrews call the jubilee.

[2] Ob hanc causam et ille Hebraeus, qui propter uxorem et liberos amans dominum suum aure pertusa servitio subiugatus, servire iubetur in saeculum, hoc est usque ad annum quinquagesimum.

[2] For this cause also that Hebrew, who, on account of his wife and children, loving his master, with his ear pierced, subjugated to servitude, is commanded to serve for an age, that is, up to the fiftieth year.

[3] Aetas plerumque dicitur et pro uno anno, ut in annalibus, et pro septem, ut hominis, et pro centum, et pro quovis tempore. Vnde et aetas tempus, quod de multis saeculis instruitur. Et dicta aetas, quasi aevitas, id est similitudo aevi.

[3] Age is for the most part said both for a single year, as in annals, and for seven, as of a man, and for one hundred, and for any time whatsoever. Whence also age means time, which is constructed out of many ages (saecula). And it is called aetas, as if aevitas, that is, a similitude of aevum (eon).

[4] Nam aevum est aetas perpetua, cuius neque initium neque extremum noscitur, quod Graeci vocant AIONAS; quod aliquando apud eos pro saeculo, aliquando pro aeterno ponitur. Vnde et apud Latinos est derivatum.

[4] For aevum is a perpetual age, of which neither beginning nor end is known, which the Greeks call AIONAS; which is sometimes among them set for saeculum (age), sometimes for aeternum (the eternal). Whence also among the Latins it has been derived.

[5] Aetas autem proprie duobus modis dicitur: aut enim hominis, sicut infantia, iuventus, senectus: aut mundi, cuius prima aetas est ab Adam usque ad Noe; secunda a Noe usque ad Abraham; tertia ab Abraham usque ad David; quarta a David usque ad transmigrationem Iuda in Babyloniam; quinta deinde [a transmigratione Babylonis] usque ad adventum Salvatoris in carne; sexta, quae nunc agitur, usque quo mundus iste finiatur.

[5] But age is properly spoken in two ways: either of a human, such as infancy, youth, old age; or of the world, whose first age is from Adam up to Noah; the second from Noah up to Abraham; the third from Abraham up to David; the fourth from David up to the transmigration of Judah into Babylonia; the fifth then [from the transmigration of Babylon] up to the advent of the Savior in the flesh; the sixth, which is now being carried on, until this world be finished.

[6] Quarum decursus per generationes et regna ita inspicitur.

[6] The course of which through generations and kingdoms is inspected thus.

XXIX. DE DESCRIPTIONE TEMPORVM.

29. ON THE DESCRIPTION OF TIMES.

[1] Prima aetas in exordio sui continet creationem mundi. Primo enim die Deus [in] lucis nomine condidit angelos; secundo in firmamenti appellatione caelos; tertio in discretionis vocabulo speciem aquarum et terrae; quarto luminaria caeli; quinto animantia ex aquis; sexto animantia ex terra et hominem, quem appellavit Adam.

[1] The first age, at its own beginning, contains the creation of the world. For on the first day God, under the name of light, created the angels; on the second, under the appellation of the firmament, the heavens; on the third, under the term of separation, the form of the waters and the earth; on the fourth, the luminaries of heaven; on the fifth, living beings from the waters; on the sixth, living beings from the earth and man, whom he called Adam.

Prima aetas.

First age.

[2] Adam ann. CCXXX genuit Seth, a quo filii Dei. [CCXXX]. Seth ann.

[2] Adam yrs. 230 begot Seth, from whom the sons of God. [230]. Seth yrs.

CCV genuit Enos, qui coepit invocare nomen Domini. [CCCCXXXV]. Enos ann. CXC genuit Cainan.

205 he begot Enos, who began to invoke the name of the Lord. [435]. Enos yrs. 190 begot Cainan.

[DCXXV]. Cainan ann. CLXX genuit Malalehel. [DCCXCV]. Malalehel ann.

[625]. Cainan, aged 170 years, begot Malalehel. [795]. Malalehel years.

CLXV genuit Iareth. [DCCCCLX].

At 165 he begot Iareth. [960].

[3] Iareth ann. CLXII genuit Enoc, qui translatus est. [MCXXII]. Enoc ann.

[3] Jared years 162 begot Enoch, who was translated. [1122]. Enoch years

CLXV genuit Matusalam. [MCCLXXXVII].

165 he begot Methuselah. [1287].

[4] Matusalam ann. CLXVII genuit Lamech. [MCCCCLIV]. Lamech ann.

[4] Methuselah yrs. 167 begot Lamech. [1454]. Lamech yrs.

CLXXXVIII genuit Noe. Arca aedificatur. [MDCXLII]. Noe autem ann.

At 188 he begot Noah. The Ark is built. [1642]. But Noah years.

DC factum est diluvium. [IIMCCXLII] [Noe vero D cum esset annorum genuit tres filios, Sem, Cham et Iaphet. Cuius sexcentesimo vitae anno factum est diluvium.

In 600 the deluge took place. [2242] [Noah, however, when he was 500 years of age, begot three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. In his 600th year of life the deluge took place.

Sunt autem ab Adam usque ad cataclismum anni IIMCCLII]. Secunda aetas.

But from Adam up to the cataclysm there are 2252 years]. Second age.

[5] Sem [cum esset annorum C] ann. II post diluvium genuit Arfaxat, a quo Chaldaei. [IIMCCXLIV]. Arfaxat ann.

[5] Shem [when he was 100 years old] yrs. 2 after the deluge begot Arphaxad, from whom the Chaldeans. [2244]. Arphaxad yrs.

CXXXV genuit Sala, a quo Samaritae et Indi. [IIMCCCLXXIX]. Sala ann. CXXX genuit Heber, a quo Hebraei.

135 he begot Salah, from whom the Samaritans and the Indians. [2379]. Salah, at 130 years, begot Heber, from whom the Hebrews.

[IIMDIX].

[2509].

[6] Heber ann. CXXXIV genuit Falec. Turris aedificatur [hoc tempore divisae sunt linguae et per orbem terrae facta est dispersio in aedificatione turris]. [IIMDCXLIII]. Falec ann.

[6] Heber, at 134 years, begot Falec. The Tower is built [at this time the languages were divided and throughout the orb of the earth a dispersion was made in the building of the tower]. [2643]. Falec years.

CXXX genuit Ragau. Dii primum adorantur. [IIMDCCLXXIII]. Ragau ann.

130 he begat Ragau. The gods are first adored. [2773]. Ragau years.

CXXXII genuit Seruc. Regnum inchoat Scytharum. [IIMDCCCCV]. Seruc ann.

132 begat Serug. The kingdom of the Scythians begins. [2905]. Serug years.

CXXX genuit Nachor.

130 he begot Nahor.

[7] Regnum Aegyptiorum nascitur. [IIIMXXXV]. Nachor ann. LXXIX genuit Thara.

[7] The kingdom of the Egyptians is born. [3035]. Nachor yrs. 79 begot Thara.

Regnum Assyriorum et Siciniorum exoritur. [IIIMCXIV]. Thara ann. LXX genuit Abraham.

The kingdom of the Assyrians and the Sicinians arises. [3114]. Thara, at age 70, begot Abraham.

Zoroastres magicam repperit. [IIIMCLXXXIV]. Tertia aetas.

Zoroaster discovered magic. [3184]. Third age.

[8] Abraham ann. C genuit Isaac et Ismahel, a quo Ismahelitae. [IIIMCCLXXXIV]. Isaac ann.

[8] Abraham, at age 100, begot Isaac and Ishmael, from whom the Ishmaelites. [3284]. Isaac years.

LX genuit Iacob. Argivorum regnum inchoat. [IIIMCCCXLIV]. Iacob ann.

At 60 he begot Jacob. The kingdom of the Argives commences. [3344]. Jacob, years.

XC genuit Ioseph. Phoroneus Graeciae leges dedit. [IIIMCCCCXXXIV]. Ioseph ann.

At 90 he begot Joseph. Phoroneus gave laws to Greece. [3434]. Joseph years.

CX.

110.

[9] Graecia segetes habere coepit. [IIIMDXLIV]. Hebraeorum [in Aegypto] servitus ann. CXLIV.

[9] Greece began to have grain-crops. [3544]. The servitude of the Hebrews [in Egypt], 144 years.

Athlans astrologiam invenit. [IIIMDCLXXXVIII]. Moyses ann. XL. Hebraei litteras habere coeperunt.

Atlas discovered astrology. [4688]. Moses, 40 years. The Hebrews began to have letters.

[IIIMDCCXXVIII].

[4728].

[10] Iosue ann. XXVII. Ericthonius in Troia [primus] quadrigam iunxit.

[10] Joshua year 27. Erichthonius in Troy [first] yoked a quadriga (four-horse chariot).

[IIIMDCCLV]. Gothonihel ann. XL. Catmus litteras Graecis dedit. [IIIMDCCXCV]. Aoth ann.

[3755]. Gothonihel years 40. Cadmus gave letters to the Greeks. [3795]. Aoth years.

LXXX. Fabulae fictae [sunt]. [IIIMDCCCLXXV]. Debbora ann. XL. Apollo [medicinae artem invenit] citharam repperit.

80. Fables [were] feigned. [3875]. Deborah years 40. Apollo [invented the art of medicine] found the cithara.

[IIIMDCCCCXV].

[3915].

[11] Gedeon ann. XL. Mercurius lyram condidit. [IIIMDCCCCLV]. Abimelech ann.

[11] Gideon years 40. Mercury fashioned the lyre. [3955]. Abimelech years.

III. Chorus in Graecia inventus. [IIIMDCCCCLVIII]. Tola ann.

3. The chorus was discovered in Greece. [4958]. Tola, years.

XXIII. Priamus regnavit in Troia. [IIIMDCCCCLXXXI]. Iair ann.

23. Priam reigned in Troy. [3981]. Jair years.

XXII. Carmentis Latinas litteras repperit. [IVMIII]. Iepte ann.

22. Carmentis discovered the Latin letters. [4003]. Jephthah years.

VI. Hercules flammis se iniecit. [IVMIX]. Abessa ann. VII.

6. Hercules threw himself into the flames. [4009]. Abessa years 7.

Alexander Helenam rapuit. [IVMXVI].

Alexander carried off Helen. [4016].

[12] Abdon ann. VIII. Troia capta est.

[12] Abdon, 8 years. Troy was captured.

[IVMXXIV]. Samson ann. XX. Ascanius Albam condidit. [IVMXLIV]. Eli [sacerdos] ann.

[1028]. Samson years 20. Ascanius founded Alba. [1048]. Eli [priest] years.

XL. Arca testamenti capitur. [IVMLXXXIV]. Samuhel et Saul ann. XL. Homerus fuisse putatur.

40. The Ark of the Covenant is captured. [4084]. Samuel and Saul, years 40. Homer is thought to have been.

[IVMCXXIV]. Quarta aetas.

[4024].Fourth age.

[13] David ann. XL. Carthago a Didone conditur. [Gad, Nathan et Asaph prophetaverunt.] [IVMCLXIV]. Salomon ann.

[13] David, 40 years. Carthage is founded by Dido. [Gad, Nathan, and Asaph prophesied.] [4164]. Solomon, years.

XL. Templum Hierosolymis aedificatur. [IVMCCIV].

40. The Temple at Jerusalem is built. [1210].

[14] Roboam ann. XVII. Regnum Israhel et Iuda dividitur.

[14] Rehoboam, 17 years. The kingdom of Israel and Judah is divided.

[IVMCCXXI]. Abia ann. III. Sub quo Abimelech pontifex fuit.

[1221]. Abijah, year 3. Under whom Abimelech was high priest.

[IVMCCXXIV]. Asab ann. XLI. Achias, Amos, Ieu, Iohel [et Azarias] prophetaverunt.

[1224]. Asa, year 41. Ahijah, Amos, Jehu, Joel [and Azariah] prophesied.

[IVMCCLXV].

[1265].

[15] Iosaphat ann. XXV. Prophetavit Helias, Abdias, et Micheas.

[15] Jehoshaphat, years 25. Elijah, Obadiah, and Micaiah prophesied.

[IVMCCXC]. Ioram ann. VIII. Prophetavit Helias et Heliseus.

[1294]. Joram, 8 years. Elijah and Elisha prophesied.

[IVMCCXCVIII]. Ochozias ann. I. Helias rapitur. [IVMCCXCIX]. Athalia ann.

[4,298]. Ahaziah, year 1. Elijah is taken up. [4,299]. Athaliah, year.

VII. Ionadab sacerdos claruit. [IVMCCCVI].

7. Ionadab the priest flourished. [1306].

[16] Ioasann. XL. Heliseus moritur. [IVMCCCXLVI]. Amasias ann.

[16] Joash years 40. Elisha dies. [4 1346]. Amaziah years.

XXIX. Carthago condita. [IVMCCCLXXV]. Ozias ann.

29. Carthage founded. [1375]. Uzziah years.

LII. Olympias a Graecis instituitur. [IVMCCCCXXVII]. Ioathan ann.

52. The Olympiad is instituted by the Greeks. [4427]. Jotham, years.

XVI. Romulus nascitur. [IVMCCCCXLIII].

16. Romulus is born. [4443].

[17] Acaz ann. XVI. Roma conditur.

[17] Ahaz yr. 16. Rome is founded.

[IVMCCCCLIX]. Ezechias ann. XXIX. Senatus Romae fit.

[1455]. Hezekiah year 29. The Senate at Rome is established.

[IVMCCCCLXXXVIII]. Manasses ann. LV. Sibylla Samia claruit. [IVMDXLIII]. Amon ann.

[4488]. Manasseh years 55. The Samian Sibyl flourished. [4543]. Amon years.

XXI. Census primum agitur. [IVMDLV].

21. The census is conducted for the first time. [4555].

[18] Iosias ann. XXXII. Thales philosophus agnoscitur.

[18] Josiah, 32 years. Thales the philosopher is recognized.

[IVMDLXXXVII]. Ioachim ann. XI. Nabuchodonosor Iudaeam capit. [IVMDXCVIII]. Sedechias ann.

[4587]. Joachim year 11. Nebuchadnezzar seizes Judaea. [4598]. Zedekiah year.

XI. Templum Hierosolymis incensum est. [IVMDCIX].Quinta aetas.

11. The temple at Jerusalem was set on fire. [5609].Fifth age.

[19] Hebraeorum captivitas ann. LXX. Iudith historia conscribitur.

[19] The captivity of the Hebrews, 70 years. The history of Judith is composed.

[IVMDCLXXIX]. Darius ann. XXXIV. Iudaeorum captivitas solvitur.

[4679]. Darius year 34. The captivity of the Jews is ended.

[IVMDCCXIII]. Xerxes ann. XX. Sophocles et Euripides tragoedi celebrantur [celeberrimi ac insignes habentur]. [IVMDCCXXXIII].

[4713]. Xerxes, year 20. Sophocles and Euripides, tragedians, are celebrated [are held most celebrated and distinguished]. [4733].

[20] Artaxerxes ann. XL. Esdras incensam legem renovat. [IVMDCCLXXIII]. Darius [qui et Nothus] ann.

[20] Artaxerxes, year 40. Ezra renews the law that had been burned. [4773]. Darius [who is also Nothus], years.

XIX. Haec aetas habuit Platonem [IVMDCCXCII]. Artarxerxes ann. XL. Hester historia expletur.

19. This age had Plato [1788]. Artaxerxes, 40 years. The history of Esther is completed.

[IVMDCCCXXXII].

[4832].

[21] Artarxerxes [qui et Ochus] ann. XXVI. Demosthenes et Aristoteles praedicantur.

[21] Artaxerxes [who is also Ochus], year 26. Demosthenes and Aristotle are celebrated.

[IVMDCCCLVIII]. Xerxes [Ochi filius] ann. IV. Xenocrates inlustris habetur. [IVMDCCCLXII]. Darius [Arsami filius] ann.

[1862]. Xerxes [son of Ochus], years 4. Xenocrates is considered illustrious. [1866]. Darius [son of Arsames], years.

VI. Alexander Hierosolymam cepit. [IVMDCCCLXVIII].

6. Alexander captured Jerusalem. [1874].

[22] Alexander [Macedo] ann. V. [Alexander] Asiam obtinuit. [IVMDCCCLXXIII]. Ptolomaeus ann.

[22] Alexander [the Macedonian] years 5. [Alexander] obtained Asia. [1869]. Ptolemy years.

XL. Macchabaeorum liber inchoat primus. [IVMDCCCCXIII] Philadelphus ann. XXXVIII.

40. The first Book of the Maccabees begins. [1913] Philadelphus, year 38.

Septuaginta interpretes agnoscuntur. [IVMDCCCCLI]. Euergetes ann. XXVI.

The Seventy interpreters are acknowledged. [1955]. Euergetes, 26 years.

Iesus Sapientiae librum conponit. [IVMDCCCCLXXVII].

Jesus composes the book of Wisdom. [4977].

[23] Philopater ann. XVII. Macchabaeorum secundi libri historia.

[23] Philopater, years 17. The history of the second book of the Maccabees.

[IVMDCCCCXCIV]. Epiphanes ann. XXIV. Romani Graecos obtinuerunt.

[4994]. Epiphanes years 24. The Romans obtained mastery over the Greeks.

[VMXVIII]. Philometer ann. XXXV. Scipio Africam vicit.

[5018]. Philometer, 35 years. Scipio conquered Africa.

[VMLIII].

[1058].

[24] Euergetes ann. XXIX. Brutus Hispaniam subegit.

[24] Euergetes, years 29. Brutus subjugated Spain.

[VMLXXXII]. Soter ann. XVII. Thraces Romanis subiciuntur.

[5082]. Soter year 17. The Thracians are subjected to the Romans.

[VMXCIX]. Alexander ann. X. Syria [a] Romanis subiecta est. [VMCIX].

[1094]. Alexander, 10 years. Syria [a] was subjected to the Romans. [1104].

[25] Ptolomaeus ann. VIII. Rhetorica ars Romae coepit.

[25] Ptolemy, 8 years. The rhetorical art began at Rome.

[VMCXVII]. Dionysius ann. XXX. Pompeius Iudaeam capit.

[5,117]. Dionysius, 30 years. Pompey captures Judea.

[VMCXLVII]. Cleopatra ann. II. Aegyptus Romanis subditur. [VMCXLIX]. Iulius [Caesar] ann.

[5147]. Cleopatra year 2. Egypt is subjected to the Romans. [5149]. Julius [Caesar] year.

V. Hic prior monarchiam tenuit. [VMCLIV].Sexta aetas.

5. This one first held the monarchy. [5 1154].Sixth age.

[26] Octavianus ann. LVI. Christus nascitur.

[26] Octavian, 56 years. Christ is born.

[VMCCX]. Tiberius ann. XXIII. Christus cruci figitur.

[1205]. Tiberius, year 23. Christ is crucified.

[VMCCXXXIII]. Gaius Caligula ann. IV. Matthaeus Evangelium [suum] scripsit. [VMCCXXXVII]. Claudius ann.

[1238]. Gaius Caligula, years 4. Matthew wrote [his] Gospel. [1242]. Claudius, years.

XIV. Marcus Evangelium edidit. [VMCCLI].

14. Mark published the Gospel. [1256].

[27] Nero ann. XIV. Petrus et Paulus necantur.

[27] Nero year 14. Peter and Paul are slain.

[VMCCLXV]. Vespasianus ann. X. Hierosolyma a Tito subvertitur. [VMCCLXXV].

[6265]. Vespasian, 10 years. Jerusalem is subverted by Titus. [6275].

[28] Titus ann. II. Hic facundus et pius fuit. [VMCCLXXVII]. Domitianus ann.

[28] Titus years 2. He was eloquent and pious. [5277]. Domitian years.

XVI. Iohannes in Pathmos relegatur. [VMCCXCIII]. Nerva ann.

16. John is relegated to Patmos. [1298]. Nerva years.

I. Iohannes Ephesum redit. [VMCCXCIV]. Traianus ann. XIX.

1. John returns to Ephesus. [1,289]. Trajan, 19 years.

Iohannes apostolus requiescit. [VMCCCXIII].

John the Apostle rests. [5313].

[29] Hadrianus ann. XXI. Aquila interpres habetur.

[29] Hadrian, 21 years. Aquila is accounted an interpreter.

[VMCCCXXXIV]. Antoninus [Pius] ann. XXII. Valentinus et Marcion agnoscuntur.

[1339]. Antoninus [Pius] years 22. Valentinus and Marcion are recognized.

[VMCCCLVI]. Antoninus [Verus] ann. XIX. Cataphrygarum haeresis oritur.

[6356]. Antoninus [Verus] years 19. The heresy of the Cataphrygians arises.

[VMCCCLXXV].

[6375].

[30] Commodus ann. XIII. Theodotion interpres habetur.

[30] Commodus, 13 years. Theodotion is regarded as an interpreter.

[VMCCCLXXXVIII]. Helius Pertinax ann. I. Nihil habet historiae. [VMCCCLXXXIX]. Severus ann.

[1393]. Helius Pertinax 1 year. It has nothing of history. [1394]. Severus years.

XVIII. Symmachus interpres habetur. [VMCCCCVII].

18. Symmachus is held to be the interpreter. [6407].

[31] Antoninus ann. VII. Quinta editio Hierosolymis invenitur.

[31] Antoninus 7 years. The fifth edition is found in Jerusalem.

[VMCCCCXIV]. Macrinus ann. I. Huius brevitas vitae nihil gestorun habet. [VMCCCCXV]. Aurelius ann.

[1414]. Macrinus year 1. The brevity of his life has nothing of deeds. [1415]. Aurelius year.

III. Sabellius oritur. [VMCCCCXVIII].

3. Sabellius arises. [1423].

[32] Alexander ann. XIII. Origenes insignis habetur.

[32] Alexander, 13 years. Origen is considered distinguished.

[VMCCCCXXXI]. Maximus ann. III. Iste Germanos vicit.

[5431]. Maximus, 3 years. This man conquered the Germans.

[VMCCCCXXXIV]. Gordianus ann. VII. Hic de Parthis et Persis triumphavit.

[1434]. Gordian, years 7. He triumphed over the Parthians and the Persians.

[VMCCCCXLI].

[1446].

[33] Philippus ann. VII. Hic primus Christianus imperator fuit.

[33] Philip, 7 years. He was the first Christian emperor.

[VMCCCCXLVIII]. Decius ann. I. Antonius monachus claruit. [VMCCCCXLIX]. Gallus ann.

[1453]. Decius year 1. Antony the monk flourished. [1454]. Gallus years.

II. Novatus haeresim condidit. [VMCCCCLI]. Valerianus ann. XV. Cyprianus martyrio coronatur.

2. Novatus founded a heresy. [6451]. Valerian, 15 years. Cyprian is crowned with martyrdom.

[VMCCCCLXVI].

[4466].

[34] Claudius ann. II. Iste Gothos ab Illyrico expulit. [VMCCCCLXVIII]. Aurelianus ann.

[34] Claudius, 2 years. He drove out the Goths from Illyricum. [5468]. Aurelian, years.

V. Iste Christianos persequitur. [VMCCCCLXXIII]. Tacitus ann. I. [Nihil memorabile egit.] [VMCCCCLXXIV].

5. This man persecutes the Christians. [1478]. Tacitus year 1. [He did nothing memorable.] [1479].

[35] Probus ann. VI. Manichaeorum haeresis orta est. [VMCCCCLXXX]. Carus ann.

[35] Probus, 6 years. The heresy of the Manichaeans arose. [5480]. Carus, years.

II. Iste de Persis triumphat. [VMCCCCLXXXII]. Diocletianus ann. XX. Iste divinis libris adustis, martyria facit.

2. He triumphs over the Persians. [5482]. Diocletian, year 20. He, with the divine books burned, brings about martyrdoms.

[VMDII]. Galerius ann. II. [Nihil dignum historiae contulit]. [VMDIV].

[5502]. Galerius yrs. 2. [He contributed nothing worthy of history]. [5504].

[36] Constantinus ann. XXX. Nicaena synodus congregatur.

[36] Constantine, 30 years. The Nicaean synod is convened.

[VMDXXXIV]. Constantius ann. XXIV. Anthropomorphitarum haeresis oritur.

[VMD34]. Constantius, years 24. The heresy of the Anthropomorphites arises.

[VMDLVIII]. Iulianus ann. II. Hic ex Christiano paganus efficitur. [VMDLX].

[1563]. Julian year 2. Here he becomes a pagan from a Christian. [1565].

[37] Iovianus ann. I. Iste iterum Christianus effectus est. [VMDLXI]. Valentinianus ann.

[37] Jovian year 1. He became a Christian again. [6561]. Valentinian year.

XIV. Gothi haeretici efficiuntur. [VMDLXXV]. Gratianus ann.

14. The Goths become heretics. [6575]. Gratian, yrs.

VI. Priscillianus agnoscitur. [VMDLXXXI]. Valentinianus ann. IX. Hieronymus in Bethleem praedicatur.

6. Priscillian is recognized. [6631]. Valentinian, year 9. Jerome is proclaimed in Bethlehem.

[VMDXC]. Theodosius ann. III. Iohannes Anachoreta claruit.

[1595]. Theodosius year 3. John the Anchorite became renowned.

[VMDXCIIl].

[1593].

[38] Arcadius ann. XIII. Iohannes Chrysostomus floruit.

[38] Arcadius, year 13. John Chrysostom flourished.

[VMDCVI]. Honorius ann. XV. Augustinus Episcopus claruit. [VMDCXXI]. Theodosius ann.

[6606]. Honorius year 15. Augustine the Bishop was illustrious. [6621]. Theodosius year.

XXVII. Nestorius haeresiarches extitit. [VMDCXLVIII].

27. Nestorius emerged as a heresiarch. [6648].

[39] Marcianus ann. VI. Chalcedonensis synodus agitur. [VMDCLIV]. Leo maior ann.

[39] Marcian, 6 years. The Chalcedonian synod is held. [1659]. Leo the Greater, years.

XVI. Aegyptus errore Dioscori latrat. [VMDCLXX]. Zenon ann.

16. Egypt barks with the error of Dioscorus. [6670]. Zeno years.

XVII. Acephalorum haeresis orta est. [VMDCLXXXVII].

17. The heresy of the Acephali arose. [1692].

[40] Anastasius ann. XXVII. Fulgentius Episcopus praedicatur.

[40] Anastasius, years 27. Fulgentius the Bishop is proclaimed.

[VMDCCXIV]. Iustinus ann. VIII. Acephalorum haeresis abdicatur.

[1719]. Justin, year 8. The heresy of the Acephali is renounced.

[VMDCCXXII]. Iustinianus ann. XXXIX. Wandali Africa extinguntur.

[6722]. Justinian, 39 years. The Vandals in Africa are extinguished.

[VMDCCLXI]. Iustinus ann. XI. Armeni fidem Christi suscipiunt. [VMDCCLXXII].

[1766]. Justin year 11. The Armenians receive the faith of Christ. [1777].

[41] Tiberius ann. VII. Langobardi Italiam capiunt.

[41] Tiberius years 7. The Langobards seize Italy.

[VMDCCLXXIX]. Mauricius ann. XXI. Gothi catholici efficiuntur.

[1834]. Maurice year 21. The Goths are made Catholic.

[VMDCCC]. Phocas ann. VII. Romani caeduntur a Persis [VMDCCCVII].

[6800]. Phocas, 7 years. The Romans are cut down by the Persians [6807].

[42] Heraclius septimum decimum agitannum. [VMDCCCXXIV]. [Huius quinto et quarto religiosissimi principis Sisebuti] Iudaei [in] Hispania Christiani efficiuntur. [Colligitur omne tempus ab exordio mundi usque in praesentem gloriosissimi Recesvinti principis annum X, qui est aera DCXCVI, ann.

[42] Heraclius is in his seventeenth year. [4824]. [Of this most religious prince Sisebut, in his fifth and fourth year] the Jews [in] Spain are made Christians. [The whole time is computed from the beginning of the world up to the present, the most glorious prince Recesvintus’s year 10, which is the era 696, years.

VMDCCCLVII]. Residuum sextae aetatis tempus Deo soli est cognitum.

5857]. The remaining time of the sixth age is known to God alone.