Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] Natura dicta ab eo quod nasci aliquid faciat. Gignendi enim et faciendi potens est. Hanc quidam Deum esse dixerunt, a quo omnia creata sunt et existunt.

[1] Nature is so called from the fact that it causes something to be born. For it is potent for begetting and for making. Some have said that this is God, by whom all things have been created and exist.

[2] Genus a gignendo dictum, cui derivatum nomen a terra, ex qua omnia gignuntur; GUE enim Graece terra dicitur.

[2] Genus, said from generating, whose name is derived from the earth, from which all things are generated; for in Greek the earth is called GUE.

[3] Vita dicta propter vigorem, vel quod vim teneat nascendi atque crescendi. Vnde et arbores vitam habere dicuntur, quia gignuntur et crescunt.

[3] Life is so called on account of vigor, or because it holds the force of being born and of growing. Whence also trees are said to have life, because they are begotten and they grow.

[4] Homo dictus, quia ex humo est factus, sicut [et] in Genesi dicitur (2,7): 'Et creavit Deus hominem de humo terrae.' Abusive autem pronuntiatur ex utraque substantia totus homo, id est ex societate animae et corporis. Nam proprie homo ab humo.

[4] Man is so called, because he was made from humus, just as [also] in Genesis it is said (2,7): 'And God created man from the humus of the earth.' But abusively the whole man is denominated from both substances, that is, from the society of soul and body. For properly man is from humus.

[5] Graeci autem hominem ANTHROPON appellaverunt, eo quod sursum spectet sublevatus ab humo ad contemplationem artificis sui. Quod Ovidius poeta designat, cum dicit (Metam. 1,84):

[5] But the Greeks called the human being ANTHROPON, because he looks upward, lifted from the soil to the contemplation of his artificer. Which the poet Ovid designates, when he says (Metam. 1,84):

Pronaque cum spectant animalia cetera terram,
os homini sublime dedit caelumque videre
iussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus.

And while the other animals, prone, look toward the earth,
he gave to man a sublime countenance and commanded him to behold heaven
and to lift his visage erect toward the stars.

Qui ideo erectus caelum aspicit, ut Deum quaerat, non ut terram intendat veluti pecora, quae natura prona et ventri oboedientia finxit.

Who for that reason, being erect, looks up to heaven, so that he may seek God, not so that he may intend toward the earth like cattle, which nature fashioned prone and obedient to the belly.

[6] Duplex est autem homo: interior et exterior. Interior homo anima, [et] exterior homo corpus.

[6] Moreover, man is twofold: the interior and the exterior. The interior man is the soul, [and] the exterior man the body.

[7] Anima autem a gentilibus nomen accepit, eo quod ventus sit. Vnde et Graece ventus ANEMOS dicitur, quod ore trahentes aerem vivere videamur: sed apertissime falsum est, quia multo prius gignitur anima quam concipi aer ore possit, quia iam in genetricis utero vivit.

[7] But the soul has received its name from the Gentiles, on the ground that it is wind. Whence also in Greek wind is called ANEMOS, because, as we draw air with the mouth, we seem to live; but that is most manifestly false, because the soul is engendered much earlier than air can be taken in by the mouth, since already in the mother’s womb it lives.

[8] Non est igitur aer inima, quod putaverunt quidam qui non potuerunt incorpoream eius cogitare naturam.

[8] Therefore the soul is not air, which certain people supposed, who were not able to conceive its incorporeal nature.

[9] Spiritum idem esse quod animam Evangelista pronuntiat dicens (Ioh. 10,18): 'Potestatem habeo ponendi animam meam, et rursus potestatem habeo sumendi eam.' De hac quoque ipsa Domini anima passionis tempore memoratus Evangelista ita protulit, dicens (Ioh. 19,30): 'Et inclinato capite emisit spiritum.'

[9] That the spirit is the same as the soul the Evangelist pronounces, saying (John 10:18): 'I have authority to lay down my soul, and again I have authority to take it up.' Concerning this very soul of the Lord also, at the time of the Passion, the aforementioned Evangelist brought it forth thus, saying (John 19:30): 'And, having inclined his head, he emitted the spirit.'

[10] Quid est enim emittere spiritum nisi quod animam ponere? Sed anima dicta propter quod vivit: spiritus autem vel pro spiritali natura, vel pro eo quod inspiret in corpore.

[10] For what is it to emit the spirit except to lay down the soul? But the soul is so called because it lives: the spirit, however, either on account of its spiritual nature, or on account of the fact that it inspires in the body.

[11] Item animum idem esse quod animam; sed anima vitae est, animus consilii. Vnde dicunt philosophi etiam sine animo vitam manere, et sine mente animam durare: unde et amentes. Nam mentem vocari, ut sciat: animum, ut velit.

[11] Likewise that the animus is the same as the anima; but the anima is of life, the animus of counsel. Whence the philosophers say that life remains even without animus, and that the anima endures without mens: whence also the amentes. For it is called mens, that it may know; animus, that it may will.

[12] Mens autem vocata, quod emineat in anima, vel quod meminit. Vnde et inmemores amentes. Quapropter non anima, sed quod excellit in anima mens vocatur, tamquam caput eius vel oculus.

[12] But the mind is so called because it stands out in the soul, or because it remembers. Whence also the unmindful are demented. Wherefore it is not the soul, but that which excels in the soul that is called the mind, as it were its head or eye.

Vnde et ipse homo secundum mentem imago Dei dicitur. Ita autem haec omnia adiunta sunt animae ut una res sit. Pro efficientiis enim causarum diversa nomina sortita est anima.

Whence also man himself, according to the mind, is called the image of God. And thus, moreover, all these things are adjoined to the soul so that it is one thing. For according to the efficiencies of causes the soul has been allotted diverse names.

[13] Nam et memoria mens est, unde et inmemores amentes. Dum ergo vivificat corpus, anima est: dum vult, animus est: dum scit, mens est: dum recolit, memoria est: dum rectum iudicat, ratio est: dum spirat, spiritus est: dum aliquid sentit, sensus est. Nam inde animus sensus dicitur pro his quae sentit, unde et sententia nomen accepit.

[13] For memory too is mind, whence also the unmindful are insane. Therefore, while it vivifies the body, it is soul; while it wills, it is animus; while it knows, it is mind; while it recollects, it is memory; while it judges the right, it is reason; while it breathes, it is spirit; while it senses something, it is sense. For from this the animus is called “sense” with respect to the things it senses, whence also “sentence” took its name.

[14] Corpus dictum eo quod corruptum perit. Solubile enim atque mortale est, et aliquando solvendum.

[14] The body is so called because, being corrupted, it perishes. For it is dissoluble and mortal, and at some time to be dissolved.

[15] Caro autem a creando est appellata. Crementum enim semen est masculi, unde animalium et hominum corpora concipiuntur. Hinc et parentes creatores vocantur.

[15] Flesh, moreover, is so called from creating. For crement is the seed of the male, whence the bodies of animals and of humans are conceived. Hence even parents are called creators.

[16] Caro autem ex quattuor elementis compacta est. Nam terra in carne est, aer in halitu, humor in sanguine, ignis in calore vitali. Habent enim in nobis elementa suam quaeque partem, cuius quid debetur conpage resoluta.

[16] However, flesh is compacted from four elements. For earth is in the flesh, air in the breath, humor in the blood, fire in the vital heat. For the elements have in us each its own part, to which a portion is owed when the framework is dissolved.

[17] Caro autem et corpus diversa significant. In carne semper corpus est, non semper corpore caro. Nam caro est quae vidit, idem et corpus.

[17] But flesh and body signify diverse things. In flesh there is always a body; not always in a body is there flesh. For flesh is what is seen, and so too the body.

Corpus, quod non vidit, idem non caro. Nam corpus dici aut quod post vitam est mortuum, aut sine vita est conditum. Interdum et cum vita corpus, et non caro, ut herba et lignum.

A body, which is not seen, is not the same as flesh. For “body” is said either of that which after life is dead, or of that which is constituted without life. Sometimes even with life it is a body and not flesh, as grass and wood.

[18] Sensus corporis quinque sunt: visus, auditus, odoratus, gustus et tactus. Ex quibus duo aperiuntur et clauduntur, duo semper patentes sunt.

[18] The senses of the body are five: sight, hearing, odor (smell), taste, and touch. Of these, two are opened and closed, two are always patent.

[19] Sensus dicti, quia per eos anima subtilissime totum corpus agitat vigore sentiendi. Vnde et praesentia nuncupantur, quod sint prae sensibus; sicut prae oculis, quae praesto sunt oculis.

[19] They are called senses, because through them the soul most subtly agitates the whole body by the vigor of sensing. Whence they are also nuncupated “presences,” because they are before the senses; just as “before the eyes” are those things which are at hand to the eyes.

[20] Visus est qui a philosophis humor vitreus appellatur. Visum autem fier quidam adseverant aut externa aetherea luce, aut interno spiritu lucido per tenues vias a cerebro venientes, atque penetratis tunicis in aerem exeuntes, et tunc conmixtione similis materiae visum dantes.

[20] Sight is that which by philosophers is called the vitreous humor. Moreover, some assert that vision comes to be either by external ethereal light, or by an internal lucid spirit coming through slender ways from the brain, and, the tunics having been penetrated, going out into the air, and then by the commixture of similar matter giving vision.

[21] Visus dictus, quod vivacior sit ceteris sensibus ac praestantior sive velocior, ampliusque vigeat, quantum memoria inter cetera mentis officia. Vicinior est enim cerebro, unde omnia manant; ex quo fit ut ea quae ad alios pertinent sensus, 'vide' dicamus; veluti cum dicimus: 'Vide quomodo sonat,' 'vide quomodo sapit,' sic et cetera.

[21] Sight is so called, because it is more vivacious than the other senses and more preeminent or swifter, and is more vigorous, as much as memory among the other offices of the mind. For it is nearer to the brain, whence all things emanate; from which it comes about that for those things which pertain to the other senses we say 'see'; as when we say: 'See how it sounds,' 'see how it tastes,' and so on.

[22] Auditus appellatus, quod voces auriat; hoc est aere verberato suscipiat sonos. Odoratus quasi aeris odoris adtactus. Tacto enim aere sentitur.

[22] Hearing is so called because it “ears” voices; that is, when the air is beaten it receives sounds. Smelling is, as it were, a touching of the air’s odor. For it is perceived when the air is touched.

Sic et olfactus, quod odoribus adficiatur. Gustus a gutture dictus.

Thus also olfaction, because it is affected by odors. Taste is named from the gullet.

[23] Tactus, eo quod pertractet et tangat et per omnia membra vigorem sensus aspergat. Nam tactu probamus quidquid ceteris sensibus iudicare non possumus. Duo autem genera tactus esse; nam aut extrinsecus venit quod feriat, aut intus in ipso corpore oritur.

[23] Touch, so called because it handles and touches and through all the members sprinkles the vigor of sense. For by touch we prove whatever we cannot judge by the other senses. Moreover, there are two kinds of touch; for either from without comes that which strikes, or it arises within, in the body itself.

[24] Vnicuique autem sensui propriam naturam datam. Nam quod videndum est, oculis capitur, quod audiendum est, auribus: mollia et dura tactu aestimantur, sapor gustu, odor naribus ducitur.

[24] To each sense, moreover, its proper nature has been given. For what is to be seen is captured by the eyes, what is to be heard, by the ears: the soft and the hard are estimated by touch; savor by taste, odor is drawn in by the nostrils.

[25] Prima pars corporis caput; datumque illi hoc nomen eo quod sensus omnes et nervi inde initium capiant, atque ex eo omnis vigendi causa oriatur. Ibi enim omnes sensus apparent. Vnde ipsius animae, quae consulit corpori, quodammodo personam gerit.

[25] The first part of the body is the head; and this name has been given to it because all the senses and the nerves take their beginning from there, and from it arises every cause of living. For there all the senses appear. Whence it, in a certain manner, bears the persona of the soul itself, which takes counsel for the body.

[26] Vertex est ea pars qua capilli capitis colliguntur, et in ua caesaries vertitur; unde et nuncupatur.

[26] The vertex is that part where the hairs of the head are gathered, and in which the hair is turned; whence it is also named.

[27] Calvaria ab ossibus calvis dicta, per defectionem; et neutraliter pronuntiatur. Obcipitium capitis pars posterior, quasi contra capitium, vel quod sit capiti retrorsum.

[27] Calvaria, named from the calvus “bald” bones, by privation; and it is pronounced in the neuter. The occiput is the posterior part of the head, as if “against the capitium,” or because it is backward from the head.

[28] Capilli vocati quasi capitis pili, facti ut et decorem praestent et cerebrum adversus frigus muniant atque a sole defendant. Pilos autem dictos a pelle, qua prodeunt; sicut el pilo dicitur a pila, ubi pigmentum contunditur.

[28] The hairs (capilli) are called, as it were, the head’s hairs (pili), made so that they both present decor and fortify the brain against cold and defend it from the sun. But the hairs (pili) are said to be named from the skin (pellis), from which they come forth; just as the pestle (pilum) is said to be from the mortar (pila), where pigment is crushed.

[29] Caesaries a caedendo vocata, ideoque tantum virorum est. Virum enim tonsum decet, mulierem non decet.

[29] Caesaries is named from cutting (caedere), and therefore it belongs only to men. For it befits a man to be shorn; it does not befit a woman.

[30] Comae sunt proprie non caesi capilli, et est Graecus sermo. Nam comas Graeci caimos a secando nominant, unde et XEIREIN tondere [dicunt]. Inde et cirri vocantur, quod etiam idem Graeci MALLON vocant.

[30] Comae are properly not-cut hairs, and it is a Greek term. For the Greeks name the comae caimos from cutting, whence also they say XEIREIN for shearing. Thence they are also called cirri, which likewise the Greeks call MALLON.

[31] Crines proprie mulierum sunt. Dictae autem crines eo quod vittis discernantur. Vnde et discriminalia dicuntur, a quibus divisae religantur.

[31] Tresses are properly of women. They are called tresses (crines) because they are discriminated—parted—with fillets (vittae); whence the parting-bands are also called discriminalia, by which, once divided, they are re-bound.

[32] Tempora sunt, quae calvariae dextra laevaque subiacent. Quae ideo sic nuncupantur quia moventur, ipsaque mobilitate quasi tempora quibusdam intervallis mutantur.

[32] The temples are those parts which lie beneath the right and left of the calvaria. They are therefore so named because they move, and by this very mobility, as if they were times (tempora), they are altered at certain intervals.

[33] Facies dicta ab effigie. Ibi est enim tota figura hominis et uniuscuiusque personae cognitio.

[33] The face is called from effigy; for there is the whole figure of the human being, and the recognition of each person.

[34] Vultus vero dictus, eo quod per eum animi voluntas ostenditur. Secundum voluntatem enim in varios motus mutatur, unde et differunt sibi utraque. Nam facies simpliciter accipitur de uniuscuiusque naturali aspectu; vultus autem animorum qualitatem significas.

[34] Countenance indeed is so called, because through it the will of the mind is shown. For according to the will it is changed into various motions, whence also the two differ from each other. For face is simply taken of each person’s natural aspect; but countenance signifies the quality of minds.

[35] Frons ab oculorum foraminibus nominata est. Haec imago quaedam animi mentis motum specie sua exprimit, dum vel laeta vel tristis est.

[35] The forehead is named from the openings of the eyes. This is a certain image of the spirit, expressing the motion of the mind by its appearance, whenever it is either glad or sad.

[36] Oculi vocati, sive quia eos ciliorum tegmina occulant, ne qua incidentis iniuriae offensione laedantur, sive quia occultum lumen habeant, id est secretum vel intus positum. Hi inter omnes sensus viciniores animae existunt. In oculis enim omne mentis indicium est, unde et animi perturbatio vel hilaritas in oculis apparet.

[36] Eyes are so called, either because the coverings of the eyelashes occlude them, lest they be harmed by the offense of any incoming injury, or because they have an occult lumen, that is, a secret or inwardly placed light. These, among all the senses, exist as the nearest to the soul. For in the eyes is every indication of the mind, whence both the perturbation of the spirit and hilarity appear in the eyes.

Oculi autem idem et lumina. Et dicta lumina, quod ex eis lumen manat, vel quod ex initio sui clausam teneant lucem, aut extrinsecus acceptam visui proponendo refundant.

The eyes, moreover, are likewise “lights.” And they are called “lights,” because from them light emanates, or because from their very beginning they hold enclosed light, or because, by setting before the sight the light received from without, they give it back.

[37] Pupilla est medius punctus oculi, in quo vis est videndi; ubi quia parvae imagines nobis videntur, propterea pupillae appellantur. Nam parvuli pupilli dicuntur. Hanc plerique pupulam vocant: vocatur autem pupilla quod sit pura atque inpolluta, ut sunt puellae.

[37] The pupil is the middle point of the eye, in which is the power of seeing; and because small images appear to us there, therefore they are called pupils. For little ones are called “pupilli.” Many call this the “pupula”: moreover it is called “pupilla” because it is pure and unpolluted, as girls are.

Physici dicunt easdem pupillas, quas videmus in oculis, morituros ante triduum non habere, quibus non visis certa est desperatio.

Physicians say that the same pupils which we see in the eyes are not present in those about to die three days beforehand; if these are not seen, there is certain despair.

[38] Circulus vero, quo a pupilla albae partes oculi separantur discreta nigredine, corona dicitur, quod rotunditate sui ornet ambitum pupillae.

[38] The circle, indeed, by which the white parts of the eye are separated from the pupil by a distinct blackness, is called the corona, because by its roundness it adorns the ambit of the pupil.

[39] Palpebrae sunt sinus oculorum, a palpitatione dictae, quia semper moventur. Concurrunt enim invicem, ut assiduo motu reficiant obtutum. Munitae sunt autem vallo capillorum, ut [et] apertis oculis si quid inciderit repellatur, et somno coniventibus tamquam involuti quiescant latentes.

[39] The eyelids are the folds of the eyes, termed from palpitation, because they are always moving. For they run together mutually, so that by assiduous motion they may refresh the gaze. They are, moreover, fortified with a rampart of hairs, so that [and] with the eyes open, if anything should fall in, it may be driven back, and when they wink in sleep they may rest hidden as if wrapped up.

[40] In summitate autem palpebrarum locis, quibus se utraque clausa contingunt, extant adnati ordine servato capilli tutelam oculis ministrantes, ne inruentes facile iniurias excipiant et ex eo noceantur, ut pulveris vel cuiusquam crassioris materiae arceant contactum, aut ipsum quoque aerem concidendo mitificent, quo tenuem atque serenum faciant visum.

[40] And on the summit of the eyelids, at the places where both, when closed, touch each other, there project hairs, grown on with order preserved, ministering tutelage to the eyes, lest, as things rush in, they readily receive injuries and be harmed thereby; so that they ward off the contact of dust or of any coarser material, or even, by cutting the very air, they mitigate it, whereby they make the vision tenuous and serene.

[41] Lacrimas quidam a laceratione mentis putant dictas; alii existimant ideo quod Graeci DAKRUA vocant.

[41] Some think tears are so called from the laceration of the mind; others suppose it is because the Greeks call them DAKRUA.

[42] Cilia sunt tegmina quibus operiuntur oculi, et dicta cilia quod celent oculos tegantque tuta custodia. Supercilia dicta, quia superposita sunt ciliis; quae idcirco pilis vestita sunt ut oculis munimenta praetendant, et sudorem a capite defluentem depellant. Intercilium vero est medium illud inter supercilia quod sine pilis est.

[42] The cilia are the coverings by which the eyes are covered, and they are called cilia because they conceal the eyes and cover them with safe guardianship. The supercilia are so called because they are placed above the cilia; and they are therefore clothed with hairs, so that they may present defenses to the eyes and drive off the sweat flowing down from the head. The intercilium, truly, is that middle part between the supercilia which is without hairs.

[43] Genae sunt inferiores oculorum partes, unde barbae inchoant. Nam Graece barbae. Hinc et genae, quod inde incipiant gigni barbae.

[43] The cheeks are the lower parts of the eyes, where beards begin. For in Greek, “genae” are “beards.” Hence also they are called cheeks (genae), because from there beards begin to be generated.

[44] Malae sunt eminentes sub oculis partes ad protectionem eorum suppositae. Vocatae autem malae sive quod infra oculos prominent in rotunditatem, quam Graeci MULA appellant, sive quod sint supra maxillas.

[44] The malae are the projecting parts beneath the eyes, set beneath for their protection. They are called malae either because they protrude below the eyes into a roundness, which the Greeks call MULA, or because they are above the maxillae (jaws).

[45] Maxillae per diminutionem a malis; sicuti paxillus a palo, taxillus a talo. Mandibulae sunt maxillarum partes, ex quo et nomen factum. Barbam veteres vocaverunt, quod virorum sit, non mulierum.

[45] Maxillae, by a diminutive from the malae (cheeks); just as a paxillus from a palus, a taxillus from a talus. Mandibles are parts of the maxillae, whence also the name was made. The ancients called it barba (beard), because it belongs to men, not to women.

[46] Aurium inditum nomen a vocibus auriendis, unde et Vergilius (Aen. 4,359):

[46] The name of the ears has been assigned from hearing voices, whence also Vergil (Aen. 4,359):

Vocemque his auribus ausit.

And with these ears he would dare the voice.

Aut quia vocem ipsam Graeci AUDEN vocant, ab auditu; per inmutationem enim litterae aures quasi audes nuncupatae sunt. Vox enim repercussa per anfractus earum sonum facit quo sensum excipiant audiendi. Pinnula summa pars auris, ab acumine dicta.

Or because the Greeks call the voice itself AUDEN, from hearing; for by a mutation of the letter, ears are, as it were, named audes. For the voice, repercussed through their anfractuosities, makes a sound by which they receive the sense of hearing. The pinnule is the topmost part of the ear, so called from its acumen (point).

Pinnum enim antiqui acutum dicebant, unde et bipinnis et pinna.

For the ancients used to call pinnum “sharp,” whence also bipinnis and pinna.

[47] Nares idcirco nominantur quia per eas vel odor vel spiritus nare non desinit, sive quia nos odore admonent ut norimus aliquid ac sciamus. Vnde et e contra inscii ac rudes ignari dicuntur. Olfecisse enim scisse veteres dicebant.

[47] The nostrils are therefore so named because through them either odor or breath does not cease to swim, or because they admonish us by smell so that we may know something and be knowledgeable. Whence also, conversely, the unknowing and raw are called ignorant. For the ancients used to say that to have sniffed was to have known.

Terentius (Adelph. 397):

Terence (Adelphoe 397):

Ac non totis sex mensibus
prius olfecissent, quam ille quidquam coeperit.

And not in a full six months
would they have smelled it, before he had begun anything.

[48] Narium recta pars, propter quod aequaliter sit in longitudine et rotunditate porrecta, columna vocatur; extremitas eius pirula, a formula pomi piri; quae vero dextra laevaque sunt, pinnulae, ab alarum similitudine: medium autem interfinium.

[48] The straight part of the nostrils, because it is equally extended in length and roundness, is called the column; its extremity is the pirula, from the form of the pear-fruit; but those on the right and left are the pinnulae, from the likeness of wings: the middle, however, is the interfinium.

[49] Os dictum, quod per ipsum quasi per ostium et cibos intus mittimus et sputum foris proicimus; vel quia inde ingrediuntur cibi, inde egrediuntu sermones.

[49] The mouth is so called because through it, as through a doorway, we send food within and cast sputum outside; or because from there foods enter, from there words go out.

[50] Labia a lambendo nominata. Quod autem superius est, labium dicimus; quod inferius, eo quod grossior sit, labrum. Alii virorum labra, mulierum labia dicunt.

[50] Lips are named from licking. What is above we call the labium; what is below, because it is thicker, the labrum. Others say labra for men, labia for women.

[51] Linguae a ligando cibo putat Varro nomen impositum. Alii, quod per articulatos sonos verba ligat. Sicut enim plectrum cordis, ita lingua inliditur dentibus et vocalem efficit sonum.

[51] Varro thinks the name of the tongue was assigned from binding food. Others, because through articulated sounds it binds words. For just as a plectrum of strings, so the tongue is struck against the teeth and produces a vocal sound.

[52] Dentes Graeci ODONTES vocant, et inde in Latinum trahere nomen videntur. Horum primi praecisores dicuntur, quia omne, quod accipitur, ipsi prius incidunt. Sequentes canini vocantur, quorum duo in dextra maxilla et duo in sinistra sunt.

[52] The Greeks call teeth ODONTES, and from there the name seems to be drawn into Latin. Of these the first are called incisors, because they are the first to cut everything that is taken in. The ones following are called canines, of which two are in the right maxilla and two in the left.

Et dicti canini quia ad similitudinem caninorum existunt, et canis ex ipsis ossa frangit, sicut et homo; ut quod non possunt priores praecidere, illis tradunt ut confrangant. Hos vulgus pro longitudine et rotunditate colomellos vocant. Vltimi sunt molares, qui concisa a prioribus atque confracta subigunt et molent atque inmassant; unde et molares vocati sunt.

And they are called canines because they exist in the likeness of those of dogs, and a dog with them breaks bones, just as a man; so that what the former cannot cut off, they hand over to these to shatter. The common folk, on account of their length and roundness, call them “colomellos.” The last are the molars, which, the things cut by the former and broken, they subdue and grind and mass together; whence they have been called molars.

[53] Dentium autem numerum discernit qualitas sexus. Nam in viris plures, in feminis pauciores existunt.

[53] However, the number of the teeth is distinguished by the quality of sex. For in males there are more; in females, fewer exist.

[54] Gingivae a gignendis dentibus nominatae. Factae sunt autem etiam ad decorem dentium, ne nudi horrori potius quam ornamento existerent.

[54] The gingivae are named from begetting teeth. Moreover, they were also made for the adornment of the teeth, lest, being naked, they should exist for horror rather than for ornament.

[55] Palatum nostrum sicut caelum est positum, et inde palatum a polo per derivationem. Sed et Graeci similiter palatum OURANON appellant, eo quod pro sui concavitate caeli similitudinem habeat.

[55] Our palate is set as the heaven is, and from there “palate” from “pole” by derivation. But the Greeks likewise call the palate OURANON, because by reason of its concavity it has the likeness of the heaven.

[56] Fauces a fundendis vocibus nominatae, vel quod per eas famur voces. Arteriae vocatae, sive quod per eas a pulmone aer, hoc est spiritus fertur, seu quod artis et angustis meatibus spiritum vitalem retineant, unde vocis sonos emittunt: qui soni uno modo sonarent, nisi linguae motus distantias vocis efficeret.

[56] The fauces are named from pouring forth voices, or because through them we speak voices. The arteries are so called, either because through them from the lung air, that is, spirit, is borne, or because with tight and narrow passages they retain the vital spirit, whence they emit the sounds of the voice: which sounds would sound in one way, unless the motion of the tongue produced the distances of the voice.

[57] Toles Gallica lingua dicuntur, quas vulgo per diminutionem tusillas vocant, quae in faucibus turgescere solent. Mentum dictum, quod inde mandibulae oriantur, vel quod ibi iungantur.

[57] They are called toles in the Gallic tongue, which people commonly, by way of diminutive, call tusillas—things that are wont to swell in the fauces (throat). The chin (mentum) is so named because from there the mandibles arise, or because they are joined there.

[58] Gurgulio a gutture nomen trahit, cuius meatus ad os et nares pertendit: habens viam qua vox ad linguam transmittitur, ut possit verba conlidere. Vnde et garrire dicimus.

[58] Gurgulio draws its name from the throat, whose passage stretches to the mouth and the nostrils: having a way by which the voice is transmitted to the tongue, so that it can collide words together. Whence also we say “to chatter.”

[59] Rumen proximum gurgulioni, quo cibus et potio devoratur. Hinc bestiae, quae cibum revocant ac remandunt, ruminare dicuntur. Sublinguium operculum gurgulionis, quasi parva lingua quae foramen linguae recludit operitve.

[59] The rumen is next to the gurgulio, by which food and drink are swallowed. Hence beasts that call back their food and chew it again are said to ruminate. The sublinguium is the operculum of the gurgulio, as if a small tongue which opens or covers the aperture of the tongue.

[60] Collum dictum, quod sit rigidum et teres ut columna, baiulans caput et sustentans quasi capitolium: cuius anterior pars gula vocatur, posterior cervix.

[60] The neck (collum) is so called because it is rigid and rounded like a column, bearing the head and supporting it as if a Capitol; its anterior part is called the gullet (gula), the posterior the nape (cervix).

[61] Cervix autem vocata, quod per eam partem cerebrum ad medullam spinae dirigitur, quasi cerebri via. Veteres autem plurali tantum numero cervices dicebant: prius Hortensius cervicem singulariter dixit. Cervix autem numero singulari membrum ipsud significat: nam pluraliter contumaciam saepe demonstrat.

[61] And it is called the cervix, because through that part the brain is directed to the marrow of the spine, as it were the brain’s way. But the ancients used to say cervices only in the plural; earlier Hortensius said cervix in the singular. Moreover, cervix in the singular number signifies the member itself; for in the plural it often denotes contumacy.

Cicero in Verrinis (6, 110): 'Praetotem tu accuses? frange cervices.'

Cicero in the Verrines (6, 110): 'Do you accuse the praetor? Break the necks.'

[62] Vmeri dicti, quasi armi, ad distinctionem hominis a pecudibus mutis, ut hi humeros, illi armos habere dicantur. Nam proprie armi quadrupedum sunt. Ola summi humeri pars posterior.

[62] The shoulders are called umeri, as it were armi, for the distinction of the human being from mute cattle, so that these are said to have humeri, those to have armi. For properly armi belong to quadrupeds. Ola is the posterior part of the uppermost shoulder.

[63] Brachia a fortitudine nominata: BARU enim Graece grave et forte significatur. In brachiis enim tori lacertorum sunt, et insigne musculorum robur existit. Hi sunt tori, id est musculi: et dicti tori, quod illic viscera torta videantur.

[63] The arms are named from fortitude: for BARU in Greek signifies heavy and strong. For in the arms are the tori of the lacerti, and the conspicuous strength of the muscles exists. These are tori, that is, muscles: and they are called tori because there the inner parts seem twisted.

[64] Cubitum dictum, quod ad cibos sumendos in ipso cubamus. Vlna secundum quosdam utriusque manus extensio est, secundum alias cubitus; quod magis verum est, quia Graece OLENOS cubitus dicitur.

[64] The elbow (cubitus) is so called, because we lie down on it for taking foods. The ulna, according to some, is the extension of both hands; according to others, the cubit; which is more true, because in Greek OLENOS is called the cubitus.

[65] Alae subbrachia sunt appellatae, eo quod ex eis in modum alarum motus brachiorum inchoet; quas quidam ascillas vocant, quod ex his brachia celluntur, id est moventur; unde et oscilla dicta ab eo quod his cillantur, hoc est moveantur, ora. Nam cillere est movere. Has quidam subhircos vocant, propter quod in plerisque hominibus hircorum foetorem reddant.

[65] The “wings” have been called the sub-brachia, because from them, in the manner of wings, the motion of the arms is initiated; which some call axillae, because from these the arms are “celled,” that is, moved; whence also oscilla are said, from the fact that by these the mouths are cillantur, that is, are moved. For cillere is to move. These some call “sub-goats,” because in very many people they emit the fetor of he-goats.

[66] Manus dicta, quod sit totius corporis munus. Ipsa enim cibum ori ministrat; ipsa operatur omnia atque dispensat; per eam accipimus et damus. Abusive autem manus etiam ars vel artifex, unde et manupretium dicimus.

[66] Hand is so called, because it is the function of the whole body. For it ministers food to the mouth; it itself works all things and dispenses; through it we receive and give. Improperly, however, “hand” also means art or artificer, whence we also say the hand-price, that is, the wage.

[67] Dextra vocatur a dando, ipsa enim pignus pacis datur; ipsa fidei testis atque salutis adhibetur; et hoc est illud apud Tullium (Cat. 3,8): 'Fidem publicam iussu senatus dedi,' id est dextram. Vnde et Apostolus [(Galat.

[67] The right hand is so called from giving; for it itself is given as the pledge of peace; it itself is employed as the witness of faith and of safety; and this is that in Tully (Cat. 3, 8): 'By order of the senate I gave the public faith,' that is, the right hand. Whence also the Apostle [(Galat.

2,9): 'Dextras dederunt mihi.']

2,9): 'They gave me their right hands.']

[68] Sinixtra autem vocata quasi sine dextra, sive quod rem fieri sinat.

[68] But the left is called as if “without a right(-hand),” or because it allows the thing to be done.

[69] A sinendo enim sinixtra est nuncupata. Palma est manus expansis digitis, sicut contractis pugnus. Pugnus autem a pugillo dictus, sicut palma ab expansis palmae ramis.

[69] For from “permitting” (sinere) the “left hand” has been named. The palma is the hand with the fingers spread, just as, when they are contracted, it is the fist. But fist (pugnus) is called from a handful (pugillus), just as palm (palma) [is named] from the spread branches of the palm-tree (palma).

[70] Digiti nuncupati, vel quia decem sunt, vel quia decenter iuncti existunt. Nam habent in se et numerum perfectum et ordinem decentissimum. Primus pollex vocatus, eo quod inter ceteros polleat virtute et potestate.

[70] The digits are named either because they are ten, or because they exist joined becomingly. For they have in themselves both the perfect number and the most becoming order. The first is called the thumb, because among the others it prevails in virtue and power.

Secundus index et salutaris seu demonstratorius, quia eo fere salutamus vel ostendimus.

The second finger is called the index and the salutatory or the demonstratory, because with it we generally salute or point out.

[71] Tertius inpudicus, quod plerumque per eum probri insectatio exprimitur. Quartus anularis, eo quod in ipso anulus geritur. Idem et medicinalis, quod eo trita collyria a medicis colliguntur.

[71] Third, the indecent, because very often by it the casting of reproach is expressed. Fourth, the ring-finger, because on it a ring is worn. The same is also the medicinal, because with it ground collyria are gathered by physicians.

Quintus auricularis, pro eo quod eo aurem scalpimus.

The fifth is the auricular, because with it we scratch the ear.

[72] Vngulas ex Graeco vocamus: illi enim has ONUCHAS dicunt. Truncus media pars corporis a collo ad inguinem. De quo Nigidius (108): 'Caput collo vehitur, truncus sustinetur coxis et genibus cruribusque.'

[72] We call the nails from the Greek: for they call these ONUCHAS. The trunk is the middle part of the body from the neck to the groin. Concerning which Nigidius (108): 'The head is carried by the neck, the trunk is supported by the hips and the knees and the legs.'

[73] Thorax a Graecis dicitur anterior pars trunci a collo usque ad stomachum, quam nos dicimus arcam eo quod ibi arcanum sit, id est secretum, quo ceteri arcentur. Vnde et arca et ara dicta, quasi res secretae. Cuius eminentes pulpae mamillae: inter quas pars illa ossea pectus dicitur, dextraque aut laeva costae.

[73] The thorax, as the Greeks say, is the anterior part of the trunk from the neck up to the stomach, which we call the ark/chest because there the arcanum is, that is, the secret, whereby others are warded off. Whence both arca and ara are said, as if secret things. Its projecting fleshy parts are the mammillae: between which that bony part is called the pectus, and on the right or left the costae.

[74] Pectus vocatum, quod sit pexum inter eminentes mamillarum partes; unde et pectinem dici, quod pexos capillos faciat. Mamillae vocatae, quia rotundae sunt quasi malae, per diminutionem scilicet.

[74] The pectus is so called because it is pexum between the projecting parts of the mamillae; whence also a pecten (comb) is so named, because it makes the hairs pexos (combed). The mamillae are so called because they are round like malae (apples), namely by a diminutive.

[75] Papillae capita mammarum sunt, quas sugentes conprehendunt. Et dictae papillae, quod eas infantes quasi pappant, dum lac sugunt. Proinde mamilla est omnis eminentia uberis, papilla vero breve illud unde lac trahitur.

[75] The papillae are the heads of the breasts, which those who are sucking grasp. And they are called papillae because infants, as it were, “pap” them while they suck milk. Accordingly, the mamilla is the whole eminence of the udder/breast, but the papilla is that short part whence milk is drawn.

[76] Vbera dicta, vel quia lacte uberta, vel quia uvida, humore scilicet lactis in more uvarum plena.

[76] Breasts are so called, either because they are exuberant with milk, or because they are humid, namely full with the humor of milk in the manner of grapes.

[77] Lac vim nominis a colore trahit, quod sit albus liquor: LEUKOS enim Graece album dicunt: cuius natura ex sanguine commutatur. Nam post partum si quid sanguinis nondum fuerit uteri nutrimento consumptum, naturali meatu fluit in mammas, et earum virtute albescens lactis accipit qualitatem.

[77] Milk draws the force of its name from its color, because it is a white liquid: for in Greek they call white leukos: its nature is changed from blood. For after childbirth, if any blood has not yet been consumed for the nourishment of the uterus, by a natural course it flows into the breasts, and, whitening by their virtue, it receives the quality of milk.

[78] Cutis est quae in corpore prima est, appellata quod ipsa corpori superposita incisionem prima patiatur: KUTIS enim Graece incisio dicitur. Idem et pellis, quod externas iniurias corporis tegendo pellat, pluviasque et ventos solisque ardores perferat.

[78] The cutis is that which is first on the body, so called because, being superposed upon the body, it is the first to suffer an incision: for KUTIS in Greek is called incision. Likewise also the pellis (hide), because by covering it drives away the external injuries of the body, and endures rains and winds and the ardors of the sun.

[79] Pellis autem mox detracta: subacta iam corium dicitur. Corium autem per derivationem caro appellavit, quod eo tegatur: sed hoc in brutis animalibus proprium.

[79] The skin, however, once removed: when worked it is now called corium. And corium is named by derivation from caro (“flesh”), because flesh is covered by it; but this is proper to brute animals.

[80] Pori corporis Graeco nomine appellantur, qui Latine proprie spiramenta dicuntur, eo quod per eos vivificus spiritus exterius ministretur.

[80] The pores of the body are called by the Greek name; in Latin they are properly called spiraments, because through them the life-giving spirit is ministered outwardly.

[81] Arvina est pinguedo cuti adhaerens. Pulpa est caro sine pinguedine, dicta quod palpitet: resilit enim saepe. Hanc plerique et viscum vocant, propter quod glutinosa sit.

[81] Arvina is the fattiness adhering to the skin. Pulpa is flesh without fat, so called because it palpitates: for it often rebounds. Many also call this viscum, because it is glutinous.

[82] Membra sunt partes corporis. Artus, quibus conligantur membra, ab artando dicti.

[82] Members are parts of the body. The joints, by which the members are bound together, are so called from tightening.

[83] Nervi Graeca derivatione appellati, quos illi NEURA vocant. Alii Latine vocatos nervos putant, eo quod artuum coniunctiones invicem his inhaereant. Maximam autem virium substantiam nervos facere certissimun est: nam quanto fuerint densiores, tanto propensius augescere firmitatem.

[83] Nerves are named by Greek derivation, which they call NEURA. Others think they are called nerves in Latin, because the conjunctions of the limbs mutually inhere by these. Moreover, it is most certain that nerves constitute the greatest substance of strength: for the denser they are, by that much the more readily does firmness grow.

[84] Artus dicti, quod conligati invicem nervis artentur, id est stringantur; quorum diminutiva sunt articuli. Nam artus dicimus membra maiora, ut brachia; articulos minora membra, ut digiti.

[84] Limbs (artus) are so called because, being bound together mutually by nerves, they are tightened, that is, constricted; the diminutives of which are articuli (articulations). For we call artus the greater members, such as the arms; articulos the smaller members, such as the fingers.

[85] Conpago capita sunt ossuum, dicta eo quod sibi conpacta nervis velut glutino quodam adhaereant.

[85] The compages are the heads of the bones, so called because, compacted to one another by nerves, they adhere as if by a certain glue.

[86] Ossa sunt corporis solidamenta. In his enim positio omnis roburque subsistit. Ossa autem ab usto dicta, propter quod cremarentur ab antiquis; sive, ut alii putant, ab ore, eo quod ibi pateant.

[86] Bones are the solidaments of the body. For in them every position and strength subsists. Bones, moreover, are said to be named from “burnt” (ustus), because they used to be cremated by the ancients; or, as others think, from “mouth” (os), because there they lie open.

Nam ubique cute visceribusque obtecta celantur.

For everywhere, covered by skin and viscera, they are concealed.

[87] Medulla appellata, quod madefaciant ossa; inrigant enim et confortant. Vertibula sunt summae ossum partes nodis crassioribus conglobatae, dictae ita eo quod ad inflexionem membrorum illa vertantur.

[87] The medulla is so called because it makes the bones moist; for it irrigates and strengthens them. The vertebrae are the upper parts of the bones, conglomerated with thicker knots, so called thus because at the inflexion of the limbs those are turned.

[88] Cartilagines ossa mollia et sine medulla, quod genus auriculae et narium discrimen et costarum extremitates habent; sive opercula ossuum, quae moventur. Et dictae cartilagines quod leni attritu carent dolorem dum flectuntur.

[88] Cartilages are soft bones and without marrow, a kind which the auricle and the partition of the nostrils and the extremities of the ribs have; or the little covers of the bones, which are moved. And they are called cartilages because, by gentle attrition, they are without pain when they are bent.

[89] Costas appellari quidam putant quod ab ipsis interiora custodiantur, et tota mollities ventris vallata salvetur.

[89] Some think that the ribs are so called because by them the inner parts are guarded, and the whole softness of the belly, walled-in, is preserved.

[90] Latus, quia iacentibus nobis latet: est enim laeva pars corporis. Dextro autem lateri habilior motus est; laevo fortior, et oneri ferendo adcommodatior. Vnde et laeva nuncupata, quod aptior sit ad levandum aliquid et portandum.

[90] The side (latus), because when we are lying down it lies hidden: for it is the left part of the body. To the right side, however, motion is more handy; to the left, stronger, and more accommodative to bearing a burden. Whence also it is called the left (laeva), because it is more apt for lifting something and carrying it.

Ipsa enim gestat clipeum, ensem, pharetra et reliqua onera, ut expedita sit dextera ad agendum.

For it itself bears the shield, the sword, the quiver, and the remaining burdens, so that the right hand may be unencumbered for action.

[91] Dorsum est a cervice usque ad renes. Dictum autem dorsum quod sit superficies durior corporis in modum saxi, fortis et ad portandum et ad perpetiendum.

[91] The back is from the cervix up to the reins. It is called the back because it is the harder surface of the body in the manner of stone, strong both for carrying and for enduring.

[92] Terga, quia in ea supini iacemus in terra, quod solus homo potest. Nam muta animalia tantum aut in ventre aut in latere iacent. Vnde et in animalibus terga abusive dicuntur.

[92] Backs, because upon them we lie supine on the ground, which only a human can do. For dumb animals lie only either on the belly or on the side. Whence also in animals “backs” are said by abuse (improperly).

[93] Scapula Š Interscapilium spatium, quod inter scapulas est, unde et nominatum.

[93] Scapula Š The interscapular space, which is between the scapulae, whence also it is named.

[94] Palae sunt dorsi dextra laevaque eminentia membra, dicta quod in luctando eas premimus; quod Graeci PALEN dicunt.

[94] The palae are the projecting members of the back on the right and left, so called because in wrestling we press them; which the Greeks call PALEN.

[95] Spina est iunctura dorsi, dicta eo quod habeat radiolos acutos; cuius iuncturae spondilia appellantur propter partem cerebri, quae fertur per eos longo tractu ad ceteras corporis partes.

[95] The spine is the junction of the back, so called because it has sharp little radii (spokes); whose joints are called spondylia on account of the part of the brain which is borne through them in a long course to the other parts of the body.

[96] Sacra spina est ima perpetuae spinae, quam Graeci IERON OSTOUN vocant, quoniam primum infante concepto nascitur, ideoque ex hostia id primum a gentilibus diis suis dabatur, unde et sacra spina dicitur.

[96] The sacred spine is the lowest part of the continuous spine, which the Greeks call IERON OSTOUN, since it is the first to be generated when the infant is conceived; and therefore this, from the sacrificial victim, was first given by the gentiles to their gods, whence it is also called the sacred spine.

[97] Renes ait Varro dictos quod rivi ab his obsceni humoris nascantur. Nam venae et medullae tenuem liquorem desudant in renibus, qui liquor rursus a renibus calore Venerio resolutus decurrit.

[97] Varro says the reins are so named because rivulets of obscene humor are born from them. For the veins and the medullae sweat out a thin liquor in the reins, which liquor, again from the reins, loosened by venereal heat, runs down.

[98] Lumbi ob libidinis lasciviam dicti, quia in viris causa corporeae voluptatis in ipsis est, sicut in umbilico feminis. Vnde et ad Iob in exordio sermonis dictum est (38,3): 'Accinge sicut vir lumbos tuos': ut in his esset resistendi praeparatio, in quibus libidinis est usitata dominandi occasio.

[98] The loins are so called on account of the lasciviousness of libido, because in men the cause of corporeal voluptuousness is in them, just as in the umbilicus in women. Whence also it was said to Job at the exordium of the discourse (38,3): 'Gird your loins like a man': so that there might be a preparation for resisting in those parts in which there is the usual occasion for libido to dominate.

[99] Vmbilicus est medius locus corporis, dictus quod sit umbus iliorum. Vnde et umbo appellatur locus in medio clypei, a quo pendet. Ex eo enim infans in utero pendet, ex eo etiam et nutritur.

[99] The Umbilicus is the middle place of the body, so called because it is the umbus of the ilia. Whence also the umbo is called the place in the middle of the shield, from which it hangs. For from it the infant in the womb hangs; from it also it is nourished.

[100] Ilium Graeco sermone appellatum, quod ibi nos obvolvamus. Graece enim ÝiliosÝ obvolvere dicitur.

[100] It is called Ilium in the Greek tongue, because there we enwrap ourselves. For in Greek ÝiliosÝ is said “to wrap around.”

[101] Clunes vocatae, quod sint iuxta colum, quod est longao. Nates, quod in ipsis innitimur dum sedemus. Vnde et conglobata est in eis caro, ne prementis corporis mole ossa dolerent.

[101] The buttocks (clunes) are so called because they are next to the colon, which is long. The nates, because upon them we lean while we sit. Whence also the flesh is conglobated in them, lest the bones should ache from the mass of the pressing body.

[102] Genitalia corporis partes, ut nomen ipsud docet, gignendae sobolis acceperunt vocabulum, quod his procreatur et gignitur. Haec et pudenda pro verecundia, sive a pube: unde et indumento operiuntur. Dicuntur autem ista et inhonesta, quia non habent eam speciem decoris sicut membra quae in promptu locata sunt.

[102] The genital parts of the body, as the name itself teaches, received their appellation from the begetting of offspring, because by these it is procreated and generated. These are also called pudenda on account of modesty, or from the pubes; whence they are covered with a garment. Moreover these are called inhonesta, because they do not have that appearance of decor such as the members which are placed in plain view.

[103] Idem et veretrum, quia viri est tantum, sive quod ex eo virus emittitur. Nam virus proprie dicitur humor fluens a natura viri.

[103] Likewise also “veretrum,” because it is of the man only, or because from it virus is emitted. For “virus” is properly called the fluid flowing from the nature of the man.

[104] Testiculi per diminutionem a testibus dicti, quorum numerus incipit a duobus. Hi semen calamo ministrant, quod ab spinae medulla et renes et lumbus suscipiunt ad gratiam procreandi. Fiscus est pellis in qua testiculi sunt.

[104] The testicles, called by diminution from the testes, their number beginning from two. They supply seed through the reed, which the marrow of the spine and the kidneys and the loin receive for the purpose of procreating. The fiscus is the skin in which the testicles are.

[105] Posteriora vero vocata, quod retro sunt et a vultu aversa, ne dum alvum purgamus inquinaremus aspectum. Meatus inde appellatus, quia per eum meant, id est egeruntur, stercora.

[105] The ‘posteriora’ are indeed so called because they are behind and averted from the face, lest, while we purge the belly, we should pollute the aspect. ‘Meatus’ is thence appellated, because through it they go—that is, are egested—the excrements.

[106] Femora dicta sunt, quod ea parte a femina sexus viri discrepet. Sunt autem ab inguinibus usque ad genua. Femina autem per derivationem femorum partes sunt, quibus in equitando tergis equorum adhaeremus.

[106] The femora are so called because in that part the sex of a man differs from a woman. They extend from the groins to the knees. The “feminae,” however, by derivation from the femora, are the parts of the thighs by which, in riding, we cling to the backs of horses.

Vnde et proeliatores olim sub feminibus equos amisisse dicebantur.

Whence also combatants of old were said to have lost their horses from beneath their thighs.

[107] Coxae quasi coniunctae axes; ipsis enim femora moventur. Quarum concava vertebra vocantur, quia in eis capita femorum vertuntur. Suffragines, quia subtus franguntur, id est flectuntur, non supra, sicut in brachiis.

[107] The hips are as if conjoined axles; for by them the thighs are moved. Their concavities are called vertebrae, because in them the heads of the femurs are turned. The ankles, so called because they are broken beneath, that is, bent below, not above as in the arms.

[108] Genua sunt commissiones femorum et crurum; et dicta genua eo quod in utero sint genis opposita. Cohaerent enim ibi sibi, et cognata sunt oculis, lacrimarum indicibus et misericordiae. Nam a genis genua dicuntur.

[108] The knees are the commissures of the thighs and the legs; and they are called knees because in the womb they are opposite to the cheeks. For there they cohere to one another, and are cognate to the eyes, the indicators of tears and of mercy. For from the cheeks the knees are said to be named.

[109] Denique conplicatum gigni formarique hominem, ita ut genua sursum sint, quibus oculi formantur, ut cavi ac reconditi fiant. Ennius (inc. 14):

[109] Finally, a human is begotten and formed folded up, such that the knees are upwards, by which the eyes are formed, so that they may become hollow and recessed. Ennius (inc. 14):

Atque genua conprimit arta gena.

And he compresses his knees tight to his cheek.

Inde est quod homines dum ad genua se prosternunt, statim lacrimantur. Voluit enim eos natura uterum maternum rememorare, ubi quasi in tenebris consedebant antequam venirent ad lucem.

Hence it is that people, when they prostrate themselves at the knees, are immediately moved to tears. For nature wished them to remember the maternal womb, where, as if in darkness, they sat before they came to the light.

[110] Crura dicta, quia in his currimus et gressum facimus. Sunt autem sub genibus usque ad suras. Tibiae vocatae quasi tubae.

[110] The legs are so called because in them we run and make our progress. They are, moreover, beneath the knees up to the calves. The tibiae are named as if they were tubas (trumpets).

Sunt enim et longitudine et specie similes.

For they are similar both in length and in appearance.

[111] Talus dictus a tolo. Nam tolus est eminens rotunditas: unde et fastigium templi rotundi tolus vocatur. Talus autem sub crura est, sub talo calcanei.

[111] The talus is said to be named from the tolus. For a tolus is a prominent rotundity; whence even the summit of a round temple is called a tolus. The talus, moreover, is beneath the legs, and beneath the talus is the calcaneus.

[112] Pedes ex Graeca etymologia nomen sortiti sunt. Hos enim Graeci PODAS dicunt, qui alternis motibus solo fixi incedunt.

[112] Feet have drawn their name from Greek etymology. For the Greeks call these PODAS, who, fixed to the ground, proceed with alternating motions.

[113] Plantae a planitie nuncupatae, quia non rotundae, ut in quadrupedibus, ne stare non possit bipes homo, sed planae atque longiores formatae sunt, ut stabile corpus efficerent. Sunt autem plantae anteriores partes, quae etiam de multis ossibus constant.

[113] The soles are named from plainness (planity), because they are not round, as in quadrupeds, lest the biped human be unable to stand, but are formed flat and longer, so that they might make the body stable. Now the soles are the anterior parts, which also consist of many bones.

[114] Calcis prima pars plantae: a callo illi nomen inpositum, quo terram calcamus; hinc et calcaneus.

[114] The heel, the first part of the sole: to it a name has been imposed from callus, with which we tread the earth; hence also calcaneus.

[115] Solum inferior pars pedis, dictum quia eo terrae vestigia inprimimus. Sed et solum dicitur omne quod aliquid sustinet, quasi solidum: unde et terra solum, quod cuncta sustineat; et solum pedis, quod totam corporis molem portat.

[115] The sole, the lower part of the foot, is so called because by it we press footprints into the earth. But also solum is said of anything that sustains something, as if “solid”: whence also the earth’s soil, because it sustains all things; and the sole of the foot, because it carries the whole mass of the body.

[116] Viscera non tantum intestina dicimus, sed quidquid sub corio est, a visco, quod est inter cutem et carnem.

[116] By viscera we call not only the intestines, but whatever is under the hide, from viscum, which is between the skin and the flesh.

[117] Item viscera vitalia, id est circumfusa cordis loca, quasi viscora, eo quod ibi vita, id est anima, continetur. Item viscera capita nervorum ex sanguine et nervis copulata. Item lacerti, sive mures, quia sic in singulis membris cordis loco sunt ut cor in media totius corporis parte, appellanturque a nomine similium animalium sub terra delitescentium.

[117] Likewise the vital viscera, that is, the places circumfused about the heart, as it were viscora, because life, that is, the soul, is contained there. Likewise the viscera, the heads of the nerves, coupled from blood and nerves. Likewise the lacerti, or “mice,” because thus in the individual members they are in the place of a heart as the heart is in the middle part of the whole body, and they are called from the name of similar animals lurking under the earth.

Nam inde musculi a murium similitudine: idem etiam et tori, quod illic viscera torta videantur.

For from that, muscles are from the resemblance to mice; likewise also tori, because there the viscera seem twisted.

[118] Cor a Graeca appellatione derivatum, quod illi KARDIAN dicunt, sive a cura. In eo enim omnis sollicitudo et scientiae causa manet. Qui ideo pulmoni vicinus est ut, cum ira accenditur, pulmonis humore temperetur.

[118] The heart is derived from the Greek appellation, which they call KARDIAN, or from cura (“care”). For in it all solicitude and the cause of science/knowledge abides. It is therefore adjacent to the lung so that, when anger is inflamed, it may be tempered by the moisture of the lung.

Huius duae arteriae sunt, e quibus sinistra plus sanguinem habet, dextra plus spiritum: unde et in dextro brachio pulsum inspicimus.

Of this there are two arteries, of which the left has more blood, the right more spirit; whence also in the right arm we inspect the pulse.

[119] Praecordia sunt loca cordis vicina quibus sensus percipitur; et dicta praecordia eo quod ibi sit principium cordis et cogitationis.

[119] The precordia are the places near the heart by which sensation is perceived; and they are called precordia because there is the principium of the heart and of cogitation.

[120] Pulsus vocatus, quod palpitet; cuius indicio aut infirmitatem intellegimus aut salutem. Huius duplex est motus; aut simplex, aut conpositus. Simplex, qui ex uno saltu constat; conpositus, qui ex pluribus motibus inordinatus et inaequalis existit.

[120] The pulse is so called, because it palpitates; by whose indication we understand either infirmity or health. Its motion is twofold; either simple, or composite. Simple, which consists of one beat; composite, which arises from several motions, inordinate and unequal.

Qui motus certa habent spatia; dactylicum percussum, quamdiu sine vitio sunt; si quando vero citatiores sunt, ut DORKADAZONTES, aut leniores, ut MURMIZONTES, mortis signa sunt.

Which motions have fixed intervals; a dactylic beat, so long as they are without defect; but if ever they are swifter, as DORKADAZONTES, or gentler/slower, as MURMIZONTES, they are signs of death.

[121] Venae dictae, eo quod viae sint natantis sanguinis, atque rivi per corpus omne divisi, quibus universa membra inrigantur.

[121] Veins are so called, because they are the ways of the flowing blood, and streams divided through the whole body, by which all the members are irrigated.

[122] Sanguis ex Graeca etymologia nomen duxit, quod vegetetur et sustentetur et vivat. Sanguis autem est dum in corpore est, effusus vero cruor dicitur. Nam cruor vocatus ab eo quod effusus decurrit, vel ab eo quod currendo corruat.

[122] Blood took its name from a Greek etymology, because it is quickened, sustained, and lives. It is called blood while it is in the body; when poured out, it is called “cruor” (gore). For “cruor” is so named from the fact that, once poured out, it runs down, or from the fact that by running it collapses.

Alii cruorem interpretantur sanguinem corruptum qui emittitur. Alii aiunt vocatum sanguinem quod suavis sit. Sanguis autem non est integer, nisi in iuvenibus.

Others interpret cruor as corrupted blood that is emitted. Others say blood is so named because it is sweet. Moreover, blood is not entire except in the young.

[123] Nam dicunt physici minui sanguinem per aetatem; unde et in senibus tremor est. Proprie autem sanguis animae possessio est: inde genas lacerare mulieres in luctu solent; inde et purpureae vestes et flores purpurei mortuis praebentur.

[123] For the physicians say that blood is diminished through age; whence also in the elderly there is tremor. Properly, however, blood is the soul’s possession: hence women are wont to lacerate their cheeks in mourning; hence too purple garments and purple flowers are proffered to the dead.

[124] Pulmo ex Graeco trahit vocabulum. Graeci enim pulmonen PLEUMON vocant, eo quod cordis flabellum sit, in quo PLEUMA, id est spiritus inest, per quod et agitantur et moventur; unde et pulmones vocati sunt. Nam Graece PLEUMA spiritus dicitur, qui flando et exagitando aerem amittit et recipit; a quo moventur pulmones et palpitant et aperiendo se ut flatum capiant, stringendo, ut eiciant.

[124] The lung draws its vocabulary from Greek. For the Greeks call the lung PLEUMON, because it is the fan of the heart, in which PLEUMA, that is, spirit/breath, is present, by which they are both agitated and moved; whence they are called lungs. For in Greek PLEUMA is called spirit, which by blowing and agitating sends out and receives air; by which the lungs are moved and palpitate, and by opening themselves so that they may take in breath, by constricting so that they may expel it.

[125] Est enim organus corporis. Iecur nomen habet eo quod ignis ibi habeat sedem, qui in cerebro subvolat. Inde ad oculos ceterosque sensus et membra diffunditur, et calore suo ad se sucum ex cibo tractum vertit in sanguinem, quem ad usum pascendi nutriendique singulis membris praebet.

[125] For it is an organ of the body. The liver has its name because fire has its seat there, which flies up to the brain. From there it is diffused to the eyes and the other senses and limbs, and by its own heat it turns the juice drawn from food toward itself into blood, which it supplies for the use of feeding and nourishing to each of the members.

In iecore autem consistit voluptas et concupiscentia iuxta eos qui de physicis disputant.

However, in the liver there reside pleasure and concupiscence, according to those who dispute concerning natural philosophy.

[126] Fibrae iecoris sunt extremitates, sicut [et] extremae partes foliorum in intibis, sive quasi linguae eminentes. Dictas autem fibras quod apud gentiles in sacris ad Phoebi aras ferebantur ab ariolis, quibus oblatis atque subcensis responsa acciperent.

[126] The fibres of the liver are the extremities, just as [also] the extreme parts of the leaves in endives, or as if tongues projecting. But the fibres are so called because among the gentiles (pagans) in sacred rites they were borne to the altars of Phoebus by seers (arioli), by which, once offered and burned, responses were received.

[127] Splen dictum a supplemento ex contraria parte iecoris, ne vacua existeret: quem quidam etiam risus causa factum existimant. Nam splene ridemus, felle irascimur, corde sapimus, iecore amamus. Quibus quattuor elementis constantibus integrum est animal.

[127] The spleen is called from “supplement,” as a supplement on the opposite side of the liver, lest it should be empty: which some even think was made for the cause of laughter. For with the spleen we laugh, with gall we grow angry, with the heart we are wise, with the liver we love. With these four elements standing firm, the living creature is whole.

[128] Fel appellatum, quod sit folliculum gestans humorem, qui vocatur bilis. Stomachus Graece os vocatur, eo quod ostium ventris sit, et ipse cibum excipiat atque in intestina transmittat.

[128] The gall was so called because it is a follicle bearing a humor, which is called bile. The stomach is called in Greek “mouth,” because it is the ostium of the belly, and it itself receives food and transmits it into the intestines.

[129] Intestina dicuntur, eo quod corporis interiore parte cohibentur; quae idcirco longis nexibus in circulorum ordinata sunt modo, ut susceptas escas paulatim digerant, et superadditis cibis non inpediantur.

[129] The intestines are so called because they are contained in the interior part of the body; which for that reason are ordered by long nexuses in the manner of circles, so that they may gradually digest the foods received, and not be impeded by superadded foods.

[130] Omentum membranum, quod continet intestinorum maiorem partem, quod EPIPLOUN Graeci vocant. Disseptum intestinum, quod discernit ventrem et cetera intestina a pulmonibus, a corde.

[130] The omentum is a membrane, which contains the greater part of the intestines, which the Greeks call epiploun. The partition of the intestines, which separates the belly and the other intestines from the lungs, from the heart.

[131] Caecum intestinum, quod sit sine foramine et exitu; quem Graeci TUFLON EUTERON dicunt. Ieiuna tenue intestinum, unde et ieiunium dicitur.

[131] The cecum intestine, because it is without a foramen and an exit; which the Greeks call TUFLON EUTERON. The jejunum, the thin intestine, whence also “fasting” (ieiunium) is named.

[132] Venter autem et alvus et uterus inter se differunt. Venter est qui acceptos cibos digerit, et apparet extrinsecus, pertinetque a pectore ad inguinem, et dictus venter quod per totum corpus vitae alimenta transmittat.

[132] But the belly and the bowels and the uterus differ among themselves. The belly is that which digests the foods received, and it appears externally, and it extends from the chest to the groin, and it is called the belly because it transmits the nutriments of life through the whole body.

[133] Alvus est qui cibum recipit, et purgari solet. Sallustius (Hist. I, frag.

[133] The bowel is that which receives food, and is wont to be purged. Sallust (Hist. 1, frag.

52): 'Simulans sibi alvum purgari.' Et vocatum alvum quod abluatur, id est purgetur: ex ipso enim sordes stercorum defluunt.

52): 'Pretending that his bowel was being purged.' And it is called alvus because it is washed (abluted), that is, purged: for from it the filth of dung flows away.

[134] Vterum solae mulieres habent, in quo concipiunt, ad similitudinem cauliculi. Tamen auctores uterum pro utriusque libet sexus ventre plerumque ponunt, nec poetae tantummodo, sed et ceteri.

[134] Only women have a uterus, in which they conceive, in the likeness of a caulicle. Yet authors for the belly of either sex for the most part use “uterus,” and not poets only, but others as well.

[135] Vocatus autem uterus, quod duplex sit et ab utraque in duas se dividat partes, quae in diversum diffusae ac replexae circumplicantur in modum cornu arietis; vel quod interius inpleatur foetu. Hinc et uter, quod aliquid intrinsecus habuerit, membra et viscera.

[135] Moreover it is called the uterus, because it is duplex and from each side divides itself into two parts, which, diffused in different directions and reflexed, are entwined around in the manner of a ram’s horn; or because inwardly it is filled with the fetus. Hence also “uter,” because it has something on the inside—members and viscera.

[136] Aqualiculus autem proprie porci est; hinc ad ventrem translatio. Matrix dicitur, quod foetus in eo generetur: semen enim receptum confovet, confotum corporat, corporatum in membra distinguit.

[136] Aqualiculus, however, properly is the pig’s; hence a transference to the belly. Matrix is so called, because the fetus is generated in it: for the semen received it cherishes, cherished it incorporates, incorporated it distinguishes into members.

[137] Vulva vocata quasi valva, id est ianua ventris, vel quod semen recipiat, vel quod ex ea foetus procedat. Vesica dicta, quia sicut vas aqua, ita de renibus urina collecta conpletur, et humore distenditur. Cuius usus in volucribus non habetur.

[137] The vulva is called as if “valve,” that is, the doorway of the belly, either because it receives seed, or because from it the fetus proceeds. The vesica (bladder) is so called because, just as a vessel with water, so, with urine collected from the kidneys, it is filled and is distended with moisture. The use of which is not had in birds.

[138] Vrina autem dicta, sive quod urat, seu quia ex renibus egeritur. Cuius indicio et salus et aegritudo futura monstratur. Qui humor vulgo lotium dicitur, quod eo lota, id est munda, vestimenta efficiantur.

[138] Urine, moreover, is so called either because it burns, or because it is excreted from the kidneys. By its indication both health and future sickness are shown. This humor is commonly called lotium, because by it garments, washed—that is, clean—are made.

[139] Semen est quod iactum sumitur aut a terra aut ab utero ad gignendum vel fructus vel foetus. Est enim liquor ex cibi et corporis decoctione factus ac diffusus per venas atque medullas, qui inde desudatus in modum sentinae concrescit in renibus, eiectusque per coitum, et in utero mulieris susceptus calore quodammodo viscerum et menstrualis sanguinis inrigatione formatur in corpore.

[139] Semen is that which, when cast, is taken up either by the earth or by the uterus for generating either fruits or a fetus. For it is a liquor made from the decoction of food and of the body and diffused through the veins and the marrows, which, sweated out thence, like bilge-water, congeals in the kidneys, and, being ejected through coitus and received in the womb of the woman, by a certain heat of the viscera and by the irrigation of menstrual blood, is formed into a body.

[140] Menstrua supervacuus mulierum sanguis. Dicta autem menstrua a circuitu lunaris luminis, quo solet hoc venire profluvium; luna enim Graece MENE dicitur. Haec et muliebria nuncupantur; nam mulier solum animal menstruale est.

[140] The menses are the superfluous blood of women. Moreover, they are called menstrua from the circuit of the lunar light, at which this profluvium is wont to come; for the moon in Greek is called MENE. These are also named “muliebria”; for woman is the only menstrual animal.

[141] Cuius cruoris contactu fruges non germinant, acescunt musta, moriuntur herbae, amittunt arbores fetus, ferrum rubigo corripit, nigrescunt aera. Si qui canes inde ederint, in rabiem efferuntur. Glutinum asphalti, quod nec ferro nec aquis dissolvitur, cruore ipso pollutum sponte dispergitur.

[141] By the contact of whose gore the crops do not germinate, the musts turn sour, the herbs die, the trees lose their fruit, rust seizes iron, the bronzes blacken. If any dogs shall have eaten thereof, they are driven into rabies. The glue of asphalt, which is dissolved by neither iron nor waters, when polluted by the gore itself, is of its own accord dispersed.

[142] Post plurimos autem dies menstruos ideo semen non esse germinabile, quia iam non est menstrualis sanguis, a quo perfusum inrigetur. Tenue semen locis muliebribus non adhaerere; labitur enim nec habet vim adhaerendi. Similiter et crassum vim non habet gignendi, quia muliebri sanguini miscere se non potest propter nimiam sui spissitudinem.

[142] After very many menstrual days, moreover, the seed is therefore not germinable, because there is now no menstrual blood, by which, being suffused, it would be irrigated. Thin seed does not adhere in the womanly places; for it slips and does not have the power of adhering. Likewise, thick seed does not have the power of begetting, because it cannot mix itself with the womanly blood on account of its excessive thickness.

Hinc et steriles mares vel feminas fieri; vel per nimiam seminis vel sanguinis crassitudinem, vel propter nimiam raritatem.

Hence also males or females become sterile; either through excessive crassitude of the semen or of the blood, or on account of excessive rarity.

[143] Primum autem aiunt cor hominis fingi, quod in eo sit et vita omnis et sapientia; deinde quadragesimo die totum opus expleri; quod ex abortionibus, ut ferunt, collecta sunt. Alii foetus a capite sumere dicunt exordium. Vnde et in avium foetus primum oculos fingi in ovis videmus.

[143] First, moreover, they say the heart of a human is fashioned, because in it there is all life and sapience; then on the 40th day the whole work is completed; these things, as they report, have been gathered from abortions. Others say the fetus takes its beginning from the head. Whence also in the offspring of birds we see the eyes first being formed in the eggs.

[144] Foetus autem nominatus, quod adhuc in utero foveatur. Cuius secundae dicuntur folliculus, qui simul cum infante nascitur continetque eum; dictus, quia et cum editur sequitur.

[144] The fetus is so named because it is still being fostered/kept warm in the uterus. Its afterbirth is called the folliculus, which is born together with the infant and contains him; so called because it also follows when he is brought forth.

[145] Nasci autem patribus similes aiunt, si paternum semen validius sit; matribus, si matris; hac ratione similes exprimi vultus: qui autem utriusque parentis figuram reddunt, aequaliter mixto paterno maternoque semine concipiuntur. Avorum proavorumque similes fieri, quia sicut in terra multa semina occulta, sic et in nobis semina celantur figuras parentum redditura. Ex paterno autem semine puellas nasci et ex materno pueros, quia omnis partus constat duplici semine, cuius pars maior cum invaluit occupat similitudinem sexus.

[145] They say, moreover, that children are born like their fathers, if the paternal seed is the stronger; like their mothers, if the mother’s is; by this reasoning similar visages are imprinted: but those who render the figure of both parents are conceived with the paternal and maternal seed mixed equally. They become like to grandfathers and great‑grandfathers, because just as many seeds lie hidden in the earth, so also in us seeds are concealed that will render the forms of parents. And that from the paternal seed girls are born and from the maternal boys, because every offspring consists of a double seed, of which the greater part, when it has prevailed, seizes the similitude of the sex.

[146] In corpore nostro quaedam tantum utilitatis causa facta sunt, ut viscera: quaedam et utilitatis et decoris, ut sensus in facie, et in corpore manus ac pedes: quorum membrorum et utilitas magna est, et species decentissima.

[146] In our body certain things have been made only for the sake of utility, such as the viscera; certain things both for utility and for decor, such as the senses in the face, and in the body the hands and feet: of which members both the utility is great, and the appearance most becoming.

[147] Quaedam tantum decoris, ut mamillae in viris, et in utroque sexu umbilicus. Quaedam discretionis, ut in viris genitalia, barba promissa, pectus amplum; in mulieribus leves genae, et angustum pectus; ad concipiendos autem et portandos foetus renes et latera dilatata. Quod ad hominem et ad partes attinet corporis ex parte dictum est, nunc aetates eius subiungam.

[147] Some things are for decor only, as the nipples in men, and in both sexes the umbilicus. Some are for distinction, as in men the genitals, the grown-out beard, the broad chest; in women, smooth cheeks and a narrow chest; but for conceiving and carrying fetuses, the loins and the sides are dilated. What pertains to the human being and to the parts of the body has been said in part; now I will subjoin his ages.

II. DE AETATIBVS HOMINVM.

2. ON THE AGES OF HUMANS.

[1] Gradus aetatis sex sunt: infantia, pueritia, adolescentia, iuventus, gravitas atque senectus.

[1] The grades of age are six: infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity, and old age.

[2] Prima aetas infantia est pueri nascentis ad lucem, quae porrigitur in septem annis.

[2] The first age is infancy, of the child being born into the light, which extends through seven years.

[3] Secunda aetas pueritia, id est pura et necdum ad generandum apta, tendens usque ad quantumdecimum annum.

[3] The second age is boyhood, that is, pure and not yet apt for begetting, extending up to the fifteenth year.

[4] Tertia adolescentia ad gignendum adulta, quae porrigitur usque ad viginti octo annos.

[4] The third is adolescence, adult for begetting, which extends up to 28 years.

[5] Quarta iuventus firmissima aetatum omnium, finiens in quinquagesimo anno.

[5] The fourth is youth, the firmest of all the ages, ending in the 50th year.

[6] Quinta aetas senioris, id est gravitas, quae est declinatio a iuventute in senectutem; nondum senectus sed iam nondum iuventus, quia senioris aetas est, quam Graeci PRESBUTEN vocant. Nam senex apud Graecos non presbyter, sed GERON dicitur. Quae aetas a quinquagesimo anno incipiens septuagesimo terminatur.

[6] The fifth age is that of the senior, that is, gravity, which is a decline from youth into old age; not yet old age but already not youth, because it is the age of the elder, which the Greeks call PRESBUTEN. For an old man among the Greeks is called not presbyter, but GERON. Which age, beginning from the 50th year, is ended at the 70th.

[7] Sexta aetas senectus, quae nullo annorum tempore finitur; sed post quinque illas aetates quantumcumque vitae est, senectuti deputatur.

[7] The sixth age is old age, which is terminated by no span of years; but after those five ages, however much of life there is, is assigned to old age.

[8] Senium autem pars est ultima senectutis, dicta quod sit terminus sextae aetatis. In his igitur sex spatiis philosophi vitam discripserunt humanam, in quibus mutatur et currit et ad mortis terminum pervenit. Pergamus ergo breviter per praedictos gradus aetatum, etymologias eorum in homine demonstrantes.

[8] Decrepitude, however, is the last part of old age, so called because it is the terminus of the sixth age. In these six intervals, therefore, the philosophers have delineated human life, in which it is changed and runs its course and arrives at the terminus of death. Let us then proceed briefly through the aforesaid grades of the ages, demonstrating their etymologies in the human being.

[9] Infans dicitur homo primae aetatis; dictus autem infans quia adhuc fari nescit, id est loqui non potest. Nondum enim bene ordinatis dentibus minus est sermonis expressio.

[9] An infant is what a human of the first age is called; and he is called an infant because he does not yet know how to speak, that is, he cannot speak. For with the teeth not yet well ordered, there is less expression of speech.

[10] Puer a puritate vocatus, quia purus est, et necdum lanuginem floremque genarum habens. Hi sunt ephebi, id est a Phoebo dicti, necdum [pronati] viri, adolescentuli lenes.

[10] Boy is named from purity, because he is pure, and not yet having the down and the flower of the cheeks. These are ephebes, that is, called from Phoebus, not yet [sprouted] men, smooth adolescent lads.

[11] Puer autem tribus modis dicitur, pro nativitate, ut Esaias (9,6): 'Puer natus est nobis.' Pro aetate, ut octoennis, decennis. Vnde est illud:

[11] But “boy” is said in three ways: with respect to nativity, as Isaiah (9,6): 'A child has been born to us.' With respect to age, as an eight-year-old, a ten-year-old. Whence is that:

Iam puerile iugum tenera cervice gerebat.

Already he was bearing the boyish yoke upon his tender neck.

Pro obsequio et fidei puritate, ut Dominus ad prophetam (Ierem. 1,7): 'Puer meus es tu, noli timere,' dum iam Ieremias longe pueritiae excessisset annos.

For obedience and the purity of faith, as the Lord to the prophet (Jerem. 1:7): 'You are my boy, do not fear,' while already Jeremiah had long exceeded the years of boyhood.

[12] Puella est parvula, quasi pulla. Vnde et pupillos non pro condicione, sed pro aetate puerili vocamus. Pupilli autem dicti quasi in oculis, hoc est a parentibus orbi.

[12] A girl is a very little one, as if a “little one.” Whence also we call pupils not by condition, but by puerile age. Pupils, moreover, are so named as if “in the eyes,” that is, bereft of parents.

Hi autem vere pupilli dicuntur quorum patres ante decesserunt quam ab his nomen acceperint. Ceteri orbi vocantur orphani, idem qui et pupilli; illud enim Graecum nomen est, hoc Latinum. Nam et in psalmo, ubi legitur (10,14): 'Pupillo tu eris adiutor,' Graecus habet ORFANO.

But they are truly called pupilli whose fathers have died before they have received a name from them. The others who are bereft are called orphani, the same as pupilli; for that is the Greek name, this the Latin. For even in the psalm, where it reads (10,14): 'To the pupillus you will be a helper,' the Greek has ORFANO.

[13] Puberes a pube, id est a pudenda corporis, nuncupati, quod haec loca tunc primum lanuginem ducunt. Quidam autem ex annis pubertatem existimant, id est eum puberem esse qui quattuordecim annos expleverit, quamvis tardissime pubescat: certissimum autem puberem esse qui et ex habitu corporis pubertatem ostendit et generare iam possit.

[13] The pubescent are named from pubes, that is, from the pudenda of the body, because these parts then for the first time take on a soft down. Some, however, reckon puberty from years, that is, that he is pubescent who has completed fourteen years, although he reaches puberty very late: but it is most certain that he is pubescent who both shows puberty from the habitus of the body and is already able to beget.

[14] Puerperae sunt, quae annis puerilibus pariunt. Vnde et Horatius (C. 4,5,23):

[14] Puerperae are those who bear in puerile years. Whence also Horace (Odes 4,5,23):

Laudatur primo prole puerpera [nato].

The new mother is lauded for her first progeny [born].

Et dictae puerperae vel quod primo partu gravantur, vel quod primum pueros pariunt.

And they are called puerperal women either because they are burdened by the first parturition, or because they first bear boys.

[15] Adolescens dictus, eo quod sit ad gignendum adultus, sive a crescere et augeri.

[15] He is called an adolescent, because he is adult for begetting, or from “to grow” and “to be augmented.”

[16] Iuvenis vocatus, quod iuvare posse incipit; ut in bubus iuvenci, cum a vitulis discesserint. Est enim iuvenis in ipso aetatis incremento positus, et ad auxilium praeparatus. Nam iuvare hominis est opus aliquod conferentis.

[16] He is called a young man (juvenis), because he begins to be able to aid (iuvare); as in cattle, the bullocks (iuvenci), when they have departed from the calves. For the young man is positioned at the very increment of age, and prepared for assistance. For to aid is the work of a human being contributing some service.

Sicut autem trecesimus perfectae aetatis est annus in hominibus, ita in pecudibus ac iumentis tertius robustissimus.

And just as the thirtieth year is the year of perfect age in humans, so in livestock and beasts of burden the third is the most robust.

[17] Vir nuncupatus, quia maior in eo vis est quam in feminis: unde et virtus nomen accepit; sive quod vi agat feminam.

[17] Called “man,” because there is greater force in him than in females: whence even “virtue” (virtus) received its name; or because he acts upon the female by force.

[18] Mulier vero a mollitie, tamquam mollier, detracta littera vel mutata, appellata est mulier.

[18] The woman, indeed, from mollity, as though “mollier,” with a letter removed or changed, is called mulier.

[19] Vtrique enim fortitudine et inbecillitate corporum separantur. Sed ideo virtus maxima viri, mulieris minor, ut patiens viri esset; scilicet, ne feminis repugnantibus libido cogeret viros aliud appetere aut in alium sexum proruere.

[19] For each is distinguished by the fortitude and the weakness of bodies. But for this reason the man’s virtue is greater, the woman’s lesser, so that she might be patient toward the man; namely, lest, with women resisting, libido should compel men to seek something else or to rush headlong into another sex.

[20] Dicitur igitur mulier secundum femineum sexum, non secundum corruptionem integritatis: et hoc ex lingua sacrae Scripturae. Nam Eva statim facta de latere viri sui, nondum contacta a viro, mulier appellata est, dicente Scriptura (Genes. 2,23): 'Et formavit eam in mulierem.'

[20] Therefore “woman” is said according to the feminine sex, not according to a corruption of integrity: and this is from the language of Sacred Scripture. For Eve, immediately made from the side of her husband, not yet contacted by the man, was called “woman,” Scripture saying (Genesis 2,23): 'And he formed her into a woman.'

[21] Virgo a viridiori aetate dicta est, sicut et virga, sicut et vitula. Alias ab incorruptione, quasi virago, quod ignoret femineam passionem.

[21] The virgin (virgo) is so called from a more verdant (greener) age, just as a rod (virga), and as a heifer (vitula). Alternatively, from incorruption, as if a virago, because she is ignorant of feminine passion.

[22] Virago vocata, quia virum agit, hoc est opera virilia facit et masculini vigoris est. Antiqui enim fortes feminas ita vocabant. Virgo autem non recte virago dicitur, si non viri officio fungitur.

[22] Called a virago, because she acts the man—that is, she does virile works and is of masculine vigor. For the ancients called strong women thus. But a virgin is not rightly called a virago, if she does not fulfill the office of a man.

Mulier vero si virilia facit, recte virago dicitur, ut Amazona.

A woman, however, if she does virile things, is rightly called a virago, like an Amazon.

[23] Quae vero nunc femina, antiquitus vira vocabatur; sicut a servo serva, sicut a famulo famula, ita a viro vira. Hinc et virginis nomen quidam putant.

[23] She who now is called a female, in antiquity was called vira; just as from servus, serva; just as from famulus, famula; so from vir, vira. Hence some also think the name of virgin (virgo) comes.

[24] Femina vero a partibus femorum dicta, ubi sexus species a viro distinguitur. Alii Graeca etymologia feminam ab ignea vi dictam putant, quia vehementer concupiscit. Libidinosiores enim viris feminas esse tam in mulieribus quam in animalibus.

[24] The female, indeed, is said to be from the parts of the thighs, where the species of sex is distinguished from the man. Others think, by Greek etymology, that the female is so named from a fiery force, because she desires vehemently. For females are more libidinous than males, both among women and among animals.

Vnde nimius amor apud antiquos femineus vocabatur.

Whence excessive love among the ancients was called feminine.

[25] Senior est adhuc viridior. In sexto libro Ovidius (Met. 12,464)::

[25] The senior is still greener. In the sixth book Ovid (Met. 12,464)::

Senior, Inter iuvenemque senemque.:

Older,
Between the youth and the old man.:

Terentius (Hec. 11):

Terence (Hecyra 11):

Quo iure sum us(us) adulescentior.

By what right have I, the younger man, made use?

[26] (Adulescentior) non utique magis adolescens, sed minus; ut senior minus sene, ubi comparativus gradus minus significat a positivo. Ergo senior non satis, sicut iunior inter iuvenem, sicut pauperior intra ditem et pauperem.

[26] (Younger) not by all means more adolescent, but less; just as “older” is less old, where the comparative degree signifies less than the positive. Therefore “older” is not sufficient, just as “younger” is among the young man, just as “poorer” is within the interval between a rich man and a poor man.

[27] Senes autem quidam dictos putant a sensus diminutione, eo quod iam per vetustatem desipiant. Nam physici dicunt stultos esse homines frigidioris sanguinis, prudentes calidi: unde et senes, in quibus iam friget, et pueri, in quibus necdum calet, minus sapiunt. Inde est quod convenit sibi infantum aetas et senum: senes enim per nimian aetatem delirant; pueri per lasciviam et infantiam ignorant quid agant.

[27] Some think that elders are so called from a diminution of the senses, in that now through antiquity they grow foolish. For the physicians say that men of colder blood are stupid, the prudent of warmer; whence both elders, in whom it is now cold, and boys, in whom it is not yet warm, are less wise. Hence it is that the age of infants and of elders accords with itself: for elders, through excessive age, fall into delirium; boys, through wantonness and infancy, do not know what they are doing.

[28] Senex autem tantum masculini generis est, sicut anus feminini; nam anus dicitur sola mulier. Anus autem appellata a multis annis, quasi annosa. Nam si commune esset nomen, cur diceret Terentius (Eun.

[28] But senex is only of the masculine gender, just as anus of the feminine; for anus is said of a woman alone. And anus is so called from many years, as if “annose.” For if the name were common, why would Terence say (Eun.

357): 'senem mulierem'? Hinc et vetula, quia vetusta. Sicut autem a sene senectus, ita ab anu anilitas nominata est.

357): ‘an old woman’? Hence also vetula, because vetusta. And just as from senex comes senectus, so from anus anility has been named.

[29] Canities autem vocata a candore, quasi candities. Vnde est illud: 'florida iuventus, lactea canities,' prout diceret candida.

[29] Hoariness, moreover, is called from candor, as if “candities.” Whence is that line: “florid youth, milky hoariness,” as if it were saying “candid.”

[30] Senectus autem multa secum et bona adfert et mala. Bona, quia nos ab inpotentissimis dominis liberat, voluptatibus inponit modum, libidinis frangit impetus, auget sapientiam, dat maturiora consilia. Mala autem, quia senium miserrimum est debilitate et odio.

[30] But old age brings with it many things both good and bad. Good, because it frees us from the most unbridled masters, imposes a measure upon pleasures, breaks the impulses of libido, augments wisdom, gives more mature counsels. Bad, however, because senility is most wretched with debility and with hatred.

'Subeunt' enim (Virg. Georg. 3,67) 'morbi tristisque senectus'. Nam duo sunt quibus minuuntur corporis vires, senectus et morbus.

'They come on' indeed (Virg. Georg. 3,67), 'diseases and sad old age.' For there are two things by which the body's powers are diminished: old age and disease.

[31] Mors dicta, quod sit amara, vel a Marte, qui est effector mortium [sive mors a morsu hominis primi, quod vetitae arboris pomum mordens mortem incurrit].

[31] Death is so called, because it is bitter, or from Mars, who is the effector of deaths [or death from the bite of the first man, because, biting the fruit of the forbidden tree, he incurred death].

[32] Tria sunt autem genera mortis: acerba, inmatura, naturalis. Acerba infantum, inmatura iuvenum, merita, id est naturalis, senum.

[32] There are, moreover, three kinds of death: bitter, immature, natural. Bitter for infants, immature for youths, merited—that is, natural—for old men.

[33] Mortuus autem ex qua parte orationis declinetur incertum est. Nam sicut ait Caesar, ab eo quod est morior in participio praeteriti temporis in 'tus' exire debuit, per unum scilicet U, non per duo. Nam ubi geminata est littera U, nominativus est, non participium, ut fatuus, arduus.

[33] As for mortuus, from which part of speech it should be declined is uncertain. For, as Caesar says, from that which is morior the past participle ought to come out in 'tus', namely with one U, not with two. For where the letter U is doubled, it is a nominative, not a participle, as fatuus, arduus.

Convenienter itaque factum ut quemadmodum id, quod significat, non potest agendo, ita et ipsud nomen non possit loquendo declinari. Omnis autem mortuus aut funus est, aut cadaver.

Accordingly it has been suitably arranged that, just as that which it signifies is not able to act, so also the name itself cannot be declined in speaking. Every dead person, moreover, is either a funeral or a cadaver.

[34] Funus est, si sepeliatur. Et dictum funus a funibus accensis, quos ante feretrum papyris cera circumdatis ferebant.

[34] It is a funeral, if it be interred. And it is called “funeral” from cords set alight, which they used to carry before the bier, papyrus wrapped about with wax.

[35] Cadaver autem est, si insepultum iacet. Nam cadaver nominatum a cadendo, quia iam stare non potest. Quod dum portatur, exsequias dicimus: crematum reliquias: conditum iam sepultum.

[35] However, it is a cadaver if it lies unburied. For cadaver is named from “falling,” because now it cannot stand. While it is being carried, we speak of exequies: when it has been cremated, of relics: when it has been laid away, now sepultured.

Corpus autem consuetudine dicitur, ut illud (Virg. Georg. 4,255):

But corpus is said by custom, as in that (Virgil, Georgics 4,255):

[36] Tum corpora luce carentum. Defunctus vocatus, quia conplevit vitae officium. Nam dicimus functos officio, qui officia debita conpleverunt; unde est et honoribus functus.

[36] Then, the bodies of those lacking light. He is called a defunct, because he has completed the office of life. For we say “they have discharged their office” of those who have completed the owed offices; whence also “having discharged honors.”

Hinc ergo defunctus, quod ab officio sit vitae depositus, sive quod sit diem functus.

Hence, therefore, defunctus, because he has been dismissed from the office of life, or because he has fulfilled his day.

[37] Sepultus autem dictus, eo quod iam sine pulsu et palpitatione est, id est sine motu. Sepelire autem est condere corpus. Nam humare obruere dicimus, hoc est humum inicere.

[37] Sepultus, moreover, is said because he is now without pulse and palpitation, that is, without motion. But to sepelire is to inter the body. For humare we say is to cover over, that is, to cast earth upon it.

III. DE PORTENTIS. [l] Portenta esse Varro ait quae contra naturam nata videntur: sed non sunt contra naturam, quia divina voluntate fiunt, cum voluntas Creatoris cuiusque conditae rei natura sit.

3. ON PORTENTS. [l] Varro says that portents are things which seem to have been born against nature: but they are not against nature, because they are brought about by divine will, since the will of the Creator is the nature of each thing created.

Vnde et ipsi gentiles Deum modo Naturam, modo Deum appellant.

Whence even the gentiles themselves call God now Nature, now God.

[2] Portentum ergo fit non contra naturam, sed contra quam est nota natura. Portenta autem et ostenta, monstra atque prodigia ideo nuncupantur, quod portendere atque ostendere, monstrare ac praedicare aliqua futura videntur.

[2] Therefore a portent happens not against nature, but against nature as it is known. And portents and ostents, monsters and prodigies are so named because they seem to portend and show, to demonstrate and pre-declare certain things to come.

[3] Nam portenta dicta perhibent a portendendo, id est praeostendendo. Ostenta autem, quod ostendere quidquam futurum videantur. Prodigia, quod porro dicant, id est futura praedicant.

[3] For they aver that portents are so called from portending, that is, pre‑showing. Ostents, moreover, because they seem to show that something will be. Prodigies, because they say forth, that is, they pre‑declare things to come.

Monstra vero a monitu dicta, quod aliquid significando demonstrent, sive quod statim monstrent quid appareat; et hoc proprietatis est, abusione tamen scriptorum plerumque corrumpitur.

Monstra, indeed, are said to be from “monitus” (admonition), because by signifying they demonstrate something, or because they at once show what is appearing; and this is a matter of propriety, yet by the abuse of writers it is for the most part corrupted.

[4] Quaedam autem portentorum creaciones in significationibus futuris constituta videntur. Vult enim deus interdum ventura significare per aliqua nascentium noxia, sicut et per somnos et per oracula, qua praemoneat et significet quibusdam vel gentibus vel hominibus futuram cladem; quod plurimis etiam experimentis probatum est.

[4] But certain creations of portents seem to be constituted in future significations. For God sometimes wishes to signify things-to-come through certain harms of those being born, just as also through dreams and through oracles, whereby he fore-warns and signifies to certain peoples or to men the future disaster; which has also been proved by very many experiments.

[5] Xerxen quippe vulpis ex equa creata solvi regnum portendit. Alexandro ex muliere monstrum creatum, quod superiores corporis partes hominis, sed mortuas habuerit, inferiores diversarum bestiarum, sed viventes, significasse repentinam regis interfectionem: supervixerant enim deteriora melioribus. Sed haec monstra quae in significationibus dantur non diu vivunt, sed continuo ut nata fuerint occidunt.

[5] For a fox created from a mare portended that the kingdom of Xerxes would be dissolved. For Alexander, a monster created from a woman—which had the upper parts of the body of a man, but dead, and the lower parts of various beasts, but living—signified the sudden interfection of the king: for the worse had survived the better. But these monsters which are given in significations do not live long, but immediately, as soon as they have been born, they perish.

[6] Inter portentum autem et portentuosum differt. Nam portenta sunt quae transfigurantur, sicut fertur in Vmbria mulierem peperisse serpentem. Vnde Lucanus (1,563):

[6] Moreover, there is a difference between a portent and the portentous. For portents are those things which are transfigured, as it is reported that in Umbria a woman gave birth to a serpent. Whence Lucan (1,563):

Matremque suus conterruit infans.

And her own infant terrified its mother.

Portentuosa vero levem sumunt mutationem, exempli causa cum sex digitis nati.

Portentous things, indeed, assume a slight mutation, for example, those born with six digits.

[7] Portenta igitur vel portentuosa existunt alia magnitudine totius corporis ultra communem hominum modum, quantus fuit Tityon in novem iugeribus iacens, Homero testante: alia parvitate totius corporis, ut nani, vel quos Graeci Pygmaeos vocant, eo quod sint statura cubitales. Alii a magnitudine partium, veluti capite informi, aut superfluis membrorum partibus, ut bicipites et trimani, vel cynodontes, quibus gemini procedunt dentes.

[7] Portents, therefore, or portentous beings, exist: some by the magnitude of the whole body beyond the common measure of men, as great as Tityus lying across nine iugera, Homer attesting; others by the smallness of the whole body, as dwarfs, or those whom the Greeks call Pygmies, because they are a cubit in stature. Others by the magnitude of parts, as with a formless head, or with superfluous parts of the limbs, such as two-headed (bicephalous) and three-handed (trimanous), or cynodonts, to whom double teeth come forth.

[8] Alii a defectu partium, in quibus altera pars plurimum deficit ab altera, ut manus a manu, vel pes a pede. Alii a decisione, ut sine manu aut capite generata, quos Graeci steresios vocant. Alia praenumeria, quando solum caput aut crus nascitur.

[8] Others from a defect of parts, in which one part is very much deficient from the other, as hand from hand, or foot from foot. Others from amputation, as generated without a hand or head, whom the Greeks call steresios. Others are praenumeria, when only the head or a leg is born.

[9] Alia, quae in parte transfigurantur, sicut qui leonis habent vultum vel canis, vel taurinum caput aut corpus, ut ex Pasiphaë memorant genitum Minotaurum; quod Graeci ETEROMORFIAN vocant. Alia, quae ex omni parte transfigurantur in alienae creationis portentum, ut ex muliere vitulum dicit historia generatum. Alia, quae sine transfiguratione mutationem habent locorum, ut oculos in pectore vel in fronte, aures supra tempora: vel sicut Aristoteles tradidit quendam in sinistra parte iecur, in dextera splen habuisse.

[9] Others, which are transfigured in part, such as those who have the face of a lion or of a dog, or a bull’s head or body, as they recount that from Pasiphaë the Minotaur was begotten; which the Greeks call HETEROMORPHIAN. Others, which are transfigured in every part into a portent of alien creation, as history says a calf was generated from a woman. Others, which without transfiguration have a change of places, as eyes on the chest or on the forehead, ears above the temples; or as Aristotle recorded that a certain person had the liver on the left side, the spleen on the right.

[10] Alia secundum connaturationem, ut in alia manu digiti plures connaturati et cohaerentes reperiuntur, in alia minus, sive in pedibus. Alia secundum inmaturam et intemperatam creationem, sicut hi qui dentati nascuntur sive barbati vel cani. Alia conplexu plurimarum differentiarum, sicut illud quod praediximus (§ 5) in Alexandro multiforme portentum.

[10] Others according to connaturation, as in one hand several fingers are found connatural and cohering, in another fewer, or in the feet. Others according to immature and intemperate creation, like those who are born toothed or bearded or hoary. Others by the complex of many differences, as that multiform portent in Alexander which we have foresaid (§ 5).

[11] Alia conmixtione generis, ut ANDROGUINOI et HERMAFRODITAI vocantur. Hermaphroditae autem nuncupati eo quod eis uterque sexus appareat. HERMES quippe apud Graecos masculus, AFRODITE femina nuncupatur.

[11] Others by commixture of kind, as they are called ANDROGUINOI and HERMAFRODITAI. Hermaphrodites, moreover, are so named because each sex appears in them. For HERMES among the Greeks is called male, AFRODITE female.

Hi dexteram mamillam virilem, sinistram muliebrem habentes vicissim coeundo et gignunt et pariunt.

These, having the right breast virile and the left muliebral, by having intercourse in turn both beget and give birth.

[12] Sicut autem in singulis gentibus quaedam monstra sunt hominum, ita in universo genere humano quaedam monstra sunt gentium, ut Gigantes, Cynocephali, Cyclopes, et cetera.

[12] Just as in individual nations there are certain monsters of men, so too in the whole human race there are certain monsters of nations, such as Giants, Cynocephali, Cyclopes, and the rest.

[13] Gigantes dictos iuxta Graeci sermonis etymologiam, qui eos GUEGUENEIS existimant, id est terrigenas, eo quod eos fabulose parens terra inmensa mole et similes sibi genuerit. GUE enim terra appellatur: GUENOS genus; licet et terrae filios vulgus vocat: quorum genus incertum est.

[13] Giants are said, according to the etymology of the Greek language, by those who reckon them GUEGUENEIS, that is, earth‑born, because, in fable, parent Earth, with immense mass, begot them similar to herself. For GUE is called earth: GUENOS, genus; although the common folk also call them sons of the earth: whose genus is uncertain.

[14] Falso autem opinantur quidam inperiti de Scripturis sanctis praevaricatores angelos cum filiabus hominum ante diluvium concubuisse, et exinde natos Gigantes, id est nimium grandes et fortes viros, de quibus terra conpleta est.

[14] But falsely, some unlearned suppose, on the basis of the Holy Scriptures, that transgressor angels had intercourse with the daughters of men before the Deluge, and that from that there were born Giants, that is, exceedingly large and strong men, with whom the earth was filled.

[15] Cynocephali appellantur eo quod canina capita habeant, quosque ipse latratus magis bestias quam homines confitetur. Hi in India nascuntur.

[15] They are called Cynocephali because they have canine heads, and their very barking acknowledges them to be beasts rather than humans. These are born in India.

[16] Cyclopes quoque eadem India gignit; et dictos Cyclopes eo quod unum habere oculum in fronte media perhibentur. Hi et AGRIOFAGUITAI dicuntur, propter quod solas ferarum carnes edunt.

[16] India likewise begets Cyclopes; and they are called Cyclopes because they are said to have one eye in the middle of the forehead. These also are called AGRIOFAGUITAI, because they eat only the flesh of wild beasts.

[17] Blemmyas in Libya credunt truncos sine capite nasci, et os et oculos habere in pectore. Alios sine cervicibus gigni, oculos habentes in humeris.

[17] The Blemmyes in Libya are believed to be born as trunks without a head, and to have mouth and eyes in the breast. Others are begotten without necks, having eyes on the shoulders.

[18] In ultimo autem Orientis monstruosae gentium facies scribuntur. Aliae sine naribus, aequali totius oris planitie, informes habentes vultus. Aliae labro subteriori adeo prominenti ut in solis ardoribus totam ex eo faciem contegant dormientes.

[18] But at the farthest part of the East, monstrous faces of nations are recorded. Others, without nostrils, with a level plain of the whole face, have formless countenances. Others have the lower lip so projecting that, in the ardors of the sun, they cover their whole face with it while sleeping.

Aliis concreta ora esse, modico tantum foramine calamis avenarum pastus haurientes. Nonnulli sine linguis esse dicuntur, invicem sermonis utentes nutum sive motum.

Others have concreted faces, drawing nourishment with only a small aperture by means of reeds of oats. Some are said to be without tongues, using, in place of speech, a nod or motion among themselves.

[19] Panotios apud Scythiam esse ferunt, tam diffusa magnitudine aurium ut omne corpus ex eis contegant. PAN enim Graeco sermone omne, OTA aures dicuntur.

[19] They report that the Panotii are in Scythia, with ears so spread in magnitude that they cover the whole body with them. For in the Greek tongue PAN means “all,” OTA “ears.”

[20] Artabatitae in Aethiopia proni, ut pecora, ambulare dicuntur: quadragesimum aevi annum nullus supergreditur.

[20] The Artabatitae in Ethiopia are said to walk prone, like cattle; no one surpasses the 40th year of age.

[21] Satyri homunciones sunt aduncis naribus; cornua in frontibus, et caprarum pedibus similes, qualem in solitudine Antonius sanctus vidit. Qui etiam interrogatus Dei servo respondisse fertur dicens (Hieron. vit.

[21] Satyrs are homunculi with hooked noses; horns on their foreheads, and like to goats in their feet, such a one as holy Anthony saw in the wilderness. Who also, when questioned, is said to have answered the servant of God, saying (Hieron. vit.

Paul. erem. 8): 'Mortalis ego sum unus ex accolis heremi, quos vario delusa errore gentilitas Faunos Satyrosque colit.'

Paul. erem. 8): 'I am mortal, one of the dwellers of the desert, whom the Gentile world, deluded by manifold error, worships as Fauns and Satyrs.'

[22] Dicuntur quidam et silvestres homines, quos nonnulli Faunos ficarios vocant.

[22] Some are also called sylvan men, whom some call fig-fauns.

[23] Sciopodum gens fertur in Aethiopia singulis cruribus et celeritate mirabili: quos inde SKIOPODAS Graeci vocant, eo quod per aestum in terra resupini iacentes pedum suorum magnitudine adumbrentur.

[23] A race of Sciopods is reported in Ethiopia, with single legs and marvelous celerity: whom therefore the Greeks call SKIOPODAS, because, during the heat, lying resupine on the ground, they are shaded by the magnitude of their feet.

[24] Antipodes in Libya plantas versas habent post crura et octonos digitos in plantis.

[24] The Antipodes in Libya have soles turned backwards behind the legs, and eight digits on their soles.

[25] Hippopodes in Scythia sunt, humanam formam et equinos pedes habentes.

[25] In Scythia there are Hippopodes, having the human form and equine feet.

[26] In India ferunt esse gentem quae MAKROBIOI nuncupantur, duodecim pedum staturam habentes. Est et gens ibi statura cubitalis, quos Graeci a cubito pygmaeos vocant, de qua supra diximus, (§ 7). Hi montana Indiae tenent, quibus est vicinus oceanus.

[26] In India they report there is a people who are called MAKROBIOI, having a stature of 12 feet. There is also a people there of cubital stature, whom the Greeks, from the cubit, call Pygmies, about whom we spoke above, (§ 7). These hold the mountains of India, to whom the ocean is adjacent.

[27] Perhibent [et] in eadem India esse gentem feminarum quae quinquennes concipiunt, et octavum vitae annum non excedunt.

[27] They report [and] that in the same India there is a nation of women who conceive at five years of age, and do not exceed the eighth year of life.

[28] Dicuntur autem et alia hominum fabulosa portenta, quae non sunt, sed ficta in causis rerum interpretantur, ut Geryonem Hispaniae regem triplici forma proditum. Fuerunt enim tres fratres tantae concordiae ut in tribus corporibus quasi una anima esset.

[28] Moreover, other fabulous portents of men are said as well, which are not, but are feigned and interpreted in the causes of things, as, for example, Geryon, king of Spain, handed down in a triple form. For there were three brothers of such concord that in three bodies there was, as it were, one soul.

[29] Gorgones quoque meretrices crinitas serpentibus, quae aspicientes convertebant in lapides, habentes unum oculum quem invicem utebantur. Fuerunt autem tres sorores unius pulchritudinis, quasi unius oculi, quae ita spectatores suos stupescere faciebant ut vertere eos putarentur in lapides.

[29] The Gorgons likewise, prostitutes, snake-haired, who turned those looking upon them into stones, having one eye which they used in turn. There were, moreover, three sisters of one beauty, as if of one eye, who so stupefied their spectators that they were thought to turn them into stones.

[30] Sirenas tres fingunt fuisse ex parte virgines, ex parte volucres, habientes alas et ungulas: quarum una voce, altera tibiis, tertia lyra canebant. Quae inlectos navigantes sub cantu in naufragium trahebant.

[30] They feign that the Sirens were three, in part maidens, in part birds, having wings and talons: of whom one sang with the voice, another with pipes, the third with the lyre. These drew sailors, enticed under their song, into shipwreck.

[31] Secundum veritatem autem meretrices fuerunt, quae transeuntes quoniam deducebant ad egestatem, his fictae sunt inferre naufragia. Alas autem habuisse et ungulas, quia amor et volat et vulnerat. Quae inde in fluctibus conmorasse dicuntur, quia fluctus Venerem creaverunt.

[31] According to the truth, however, they were prostitutes, who, since they led passers-by down into destitution, were feigned to inflict shipwrecks upon them. They were said to have had wings and claws, because love both flies and wounds. Whence they are said to have lingered among the waves, because the waves created Venus.

[32] Scyllam quoque ferunt feminam capitibus succinctam caninis, cum latratibus magnis, propter fretum Siculi maris, in quo navigantes verticibus in se concurrentium undarum exterriti latrari aestimant undas, quas sorbentis aestus vorago conlidit.

[32] They also report Scylla as a woman girded with canine heads, with great barkings, on account of the strait of the Sicilian sea, in which the sailors, terrified by the vortices of waves converging upon themselves, reckon the waves to be barking, which the whirlpool of a swallowing tide dashes together.

[33] Fingunt et monstra quaedam inrationabilium animantium, ut Cerberum inferorum canem tria capita habentem, significantes per eum tres aetates per quas mors hominem devorat, id est infantiam, iuventutem et senectutem. Quem quidam ideo dictum Cerberum putant quasi KREOBOROS, id est carnem vorans.

[33] They also fashion certain monsters of irrational animals, such as Cerberus, the dog of the underworld, having three heads, signifying by him the three ages through which death devours man, that is, infancy, youth, and old age. Some think that he is therefore called Cerberus as if KREOBOROS, that is, flesh-devouring.

[34] Dicunt et Hydram serpentem cum novem capitibus, quae Latine excetra dicitur, quod uno caeso tria capita excrescebant. Sed constat Hydram locum fuisse evomentem aquas, vastantem vicinam civitatem, in quo uno meatu clauso multi erumpebant. Quod Hercules videns loca ipsa exussit, et sic aquae clausit meatus.

[34] They also say the Hydra, a serpent with nine heads, which in Latin is called the “excetra,” because when one was cut off three heads grew out. But it is agreed that the Hydra was a place vomiting forth waters, devastating the neighboring city, in which, when one passage was closed, many burst out. Seeing this, Hercules burned out the very places, and thus shut the outlets of the waters.

[35] Nam hydra ab aqua dicta est. Huius mentionem facit Ambrosius in similitudinem haeresium, dicens (De fid. 1,4): 'Haeresis enim velut quaedam hydra fabularum vulneribus suis crevit; et dum saepe reciditur, pullulavit igni debita incendioque peritura.'

[35] For the hydra is said to be named from water. Ambrose makes mention of this in the similitude of heresies, saying (On the Faith 1,4): 'For heresy, like a certain hydra of fables, grew by its own wounds; and while it is often cut back, it has sprouted—owed to fire and destined to perish by conflagration.'

[36] Fingunt et Chimaeram triformem bestiam: ore leo, postremis partibus draco, media caprea. Quam quidam Physiologi non animal, sed Ciliciae montem esse aiunt, quibusdam locis leones et capreas nutrientem, quibusdam ardentem, quibusdam plenum serpentibus. Hunc Bellorophontes habitabilem fecit, unde Chimaeram dicitur occidisse.

[36] They also feign the Chimaera, a triform beast: at the mouth a lion, in the hind parts a dragon, in the middle a she-goat. Some Physiologists say that this is not an animal, but a mountain of Cilicia, in some places nourishing lions and she-goats, in some burning, in some full of serpents. This Bellerophon made habitable, whence he is said to have slain the Chimaera.

[37] Centauris autem species vocabulum indidit, id est hominem equo mixtum, quos quidam fuisse equites Thessalorum dicunt, sed pro eo quod discurrentes in bello velut unum corpus equorum et hominum viderentur, inde Centauros fictos adseruerunt.

[37] But the species bestowed the appellation to the Centaurs, that is, a man mixed with a horse; whom some say were the horsemen of the Thessalians, but because, as they were running to and fro in war, they seemed as though one body of horses and men, from that they asserted the Centaurs to be fictitious.

[38] Porro Minotaurum nomen sumpsisse ex tauro et homine, qualem bestiam dicunt fabulose in Labyrintho inclusam fuisse. De qua Ovidius (Art. Am. 2,24):

[38] Moreover, the Minotaur is said to have taken its name from a bull and a man, such a beast as they fabulously say was enclosed in the Labyrinth. About which Ovid (Art. of Love 2,24):

Sem ibovemque virum, semivirumque bovem.

The half-bull man, and the half-man bull.

[39] Onocentaurum autem vocari eo quod media hominis specie, media asini esse dicatur; sicut et Hippocentauri, quod equorum hominumque in eis natura coniuncta fuisse putatur.

[39] The Onocentaur is called so because it is said to be half in the form of a man, half of an ass; just so also the Hippocentaurs, because the nature of horses and of men is thought to have been conjoined in them.

IV. DE TRANSFORMATIS.

4. ON THE TRANSFORMED.

[1] Scribuntur autem et quaedam monstruosae hominum transformationes et commutationes in bestiis, sicut de illa maga famosissima Circe, quae socios quoque Vlixis mutasse fertur in bestias: et de Arcadibus, qui sorte ducti transnatabant quoddam stagnum atque ibi convertebantur in lupos.

[1] And moreover there are written certain monstrous transformations of humans and commutations into beasts, as about that most famous maga Circe, who is said to have changed even the comrades of Ulysses into beasts; and about the Arcadians, who, drawn by lot, used to swim across a certain pool and there were converted into wolves.

[2] Nam et Diomedis socios in volucres fuisse conversos non fabuloso mendacio, sed historica adfirmatione confirmant. Sed et quidam adserunt Strigas ex hominibus fieri. Ad multa enim latrocinia figurae sceleratorum mutantur, et sive magicis cantibus, sive herbarum veneficio totis corporibus in feras transeunt.

[2] For they also confirm that the companions of Diomedes were turned into birds, not by a fabulous mendacity, but by an historical affirmation. And some even assert that Striges are made from human beings. For for many acts of brigandage the shapes of the wicked are changed, and either by magical chants, or by the venefice of herbs, they pass with their whole bodies into wild beasts.

[3] Siquidem et per naturam pleraque mutationem recipiunt, et corrupta in diversas species transformantur; sicut de vitulorum carnibus putridis apes, sicut de equis scarabei, de mulis locustae, de cancris scorpiones. Ovidius (Metam. 15,369): Concava litorei si demas brachia cancri, scorpio exibit, caudaque minabitur unca.

[3] Indeed, even by nature very many things receive transformation, and when corrupted they are transfigured into diverse species; as from the putrid flesh of calves, bees; as from horses, beetles; from mules, locusts; from crabs, scorpions. Ovid (Metamorphoses 15,369): If you remove the hollow arms of the shore-dwelling crab, a scorpion will come forth, and with its hooked tail it will menace.