Isidore of Seville: ETYMOLOGIARVM SIVE ORIGINVM LIBRI XX

[1] Primus bella intulit Ninus Assyriorum rex. Ipse enim finibus suis nequaquam contentus, humanae societatis foedus inrumpens exercitus ducere, aliena vastare, liberos populos aut trucidare aut subicere coepit, universamque Asiam usque ad Libyae fines nova servitute perdomuit. Hinc iam studuit orbis in mutuo sanguine alterna crassare caede.

[1] Ninus, king of the Assyrians, was the first to bring wars. For he himself, by no means content with his own borders, breaking the covenant of human society, began to lead armies, to lay waste to what belonged to others, to either butcher or to subject free peoples, and he subdued all Asia up to the borders of Libya with a new servitude. From this point the world now strove, in mutual blood, to thicken itself by alternate slaughter.

[2] Quattuor autem sunt genera bellorum: id est iustum, iniustum civile, et plus quam civile. Iustum bellum est quod ex praedicto geritur de rebus repetitis aut propulsandorum hostium causa. Iniustum bellum est quod de furore, non de legitima ratione initur.

[2] There are, moreover, four kinds of wars: namely, just, unjust, civil, and more-than-civil. A just war is that which is waged after prior declaration concerning things demanded back, or for the sake of repelling enemies. An unjust war is that which is undertaken from fury, not from legitimate reason.

De quo in Republica Cicero dicit (3,35): 'Illa iniusta bella sunt quae sunt sine causa suscepta.

Concerning which in the Republic Cicero says (3,35): 'Those wars are unjust which are undertaken without cause.'

[3] Nam extra ulciscendi aut propulsandorum hostium causa bellum geri iustum nullum potest.' Et hoc idem Tullius parvis interiectis subdidit: 'Nullum bellum iustum habetur nisi denuntiatum, nisi dictum, nisi de repetitis rebus.' Civile bellum est inter cives orta seditio et concitati tumultus, sicut inter Syllam et Marium, qui bellum civile invicem in una gente gesserunt.

[3] For no just war can be waged except for the cause of avenging or of repelling enemies.' And this same Tullius, with a few intervening matters, added: 'No war is held just unless it has been denounced, unless declared, unless about things demanded back.' A civil war is a sedition arisen among citizens and stirred-up tumults, as between Sulla and Marius, who waged a civil war against each other within one nation.

[4] Plus quam civile bellum est ubi non solum cives certant, sed et cognati; quale actum est inter Caesarem et Pompeium, quando gener et socer invicem dimicaverunt. Siquidem in hac pugna frater cum fratre dimicavit, et pater adversus filium arma portavit. Lucanus (2,151):

[4] More than a civil war it is, where not only citizens contend, but even kinsmen; such as was waged between Caesar and Pompey, when son-in-law and father-in-law fought against each other. Indeed, in this battle brother fought with brother, and a father bore arms against his son. Lucan (2,151):

In fratrum ceciderunt praemia fratres.

Brothers fell as prizes for brothers.

Item (2,150):

Likewise (2,150):

Cui cervix caesa parentis
cederet.

To whom the hewn neck of his parent
would cede.

[5] Bella itaque dicuntur interna, externa, servilia, socialia, piratica. Nam piratica bella sunt sparsa latronum per maria mioparonibus levibus et fugacibus, non solum navibus commeatus, sed etiam insulas provinciasque vastantibus. Quos primum Gnaeus Pompeius post multam vastationem, quam terra marique diu egerant, mira celeritate conpressit ac superavit.

[5] Wars, therefore, are called internal, external, servile, Social, piratical. For piratical wars are of brigands scattered over the seas with light and swift myoparons, ravaging not only ships of convoy but also islands and provinces. These Gnaeus Pompeius was the first to suppress and overcome, after the great devastation which they had long wrought by land and sea, with wondrous speed.

[6] Sicut autem bellum vocatur quod contra hostes agitur, ita tumultus quod civili seditione concitatur. Nam seditio est dissensio civium, dicta quod seorsum alii ad alios eant. Alii aestimant dissensionem animorum seditionem vocari, quam Graeci DIASTATIN vocant.

[6] Just as a war is called that which is waged against enemies, so a tumult is that which is stirred up by civil sedition. For sedition is a dissension of citizens, so called because some go apart to others. Others estimate that a dissension of minds is called sedition, which the Greeks call DIASTATIN.

[7] Quo autem differat utrumque Cicero docet (Phil. 8,3): 'Potest enim,' inquit, 'esse bellum ut tumultus non sit. Tumultus autem esse sine bello non potest.

[7] But how the two differ, Cicero teaches (Phil. 8,3): 'For there can be a war such that there is not a tumult,' he says, 'but a tumult cannot be without war.

Quid est enim aliud tumultus nisi perturbatio tanta ut maior timor oriatur?' Vnde etiam dictus tumultus, quasi timor multus. 'Gravius autem esse tumultum quam bellum; nam in bello vacationes valent, in tumultu non valent.'

'For what else is a tumult but so great a perturbation that a greater fear arises?' Whence it is also called 'tumultus,' as if 'much fear.' 'Moreover, a tumult is graver than a war; for in war exemptions prevail, in a tumult they do not prevail.'

[8] Differt autem bellum, pugna et proelium. Nam bellum universum dicitur, ut Punicum. Huius partes sunt pugnae, ut Cannensis, Thermensis.

[8] However, war, a fight, and a battle differ. For war is said of the whole, as the Punic; its parts are fights, as the Cannaean, the Thermensian.

Rursus in una pugna multa sunt proelia. Aliud enim in cornibus, aliud in media, aliud in extrema acie geritur. Bellum igitur est totum, pugna unius diei, proelium pars pugnae est.

Again, in one battle there are many engagements. For one is carried on at the wings, another in the middle, another at the extreme of the battle-line. War, therefore, is the whole; a battle is of a single day; an engagement is a part of a battle.

[9] Bellum antea duellum vocatum eo quod duae sint partes dimicantium, vel quod alterum faciat victorem, alterum victum. Postea mutata et detracta littera dictum [est] bellum. Alii per antiphrasin putant dictum (eo quod sit horridum; unde illud (Virg.

[9] War was formerly called duellum because there are two parties of the combatants, or because it makes the one a victor, the other vanquished. Afterwards, with a letter changed and removed, it was called bellum. Others think it is so called by antiphrasis (because it is horrid; whence that (Virg.

Aen. 6,86):

Aeneid 6,86):

Bella, horrida bella),
cum bellum contra sit pessimum.

Wars, horrid wars),
since on the contrary war is the worst.

[10] Prelia dicuntur ab inpremendo, hostis hostem. Vnde et prela ligna quibus uva premitur. Pugna vocata eo quod initio usus fuisset in bello pugnis contendere, vel quia primo bellum pugnis incipiebant.

[10] Battles (proelia) are said to be from pressing upon (from imprimere), the enemy pressing the enemy. Whence also presses (prela) are the timbers by which the grape is pressed. A fight (pugna) is so called because at the beginning there was a custom in war to contend with fists, or because at first they began war with fists.

Vnde et pugna etiam duorum est aliquando et sine ferro.

Whence also combat is sometimes between two, and without iron.

[11] Quattuor [autem] in bello aguntur: pugna, fuga, victoria, pax. Pacis vocabulum videtur a pacto sumptum. Posterius autem pax accipitur, foedus primum initur.

[11] Four things, moreover, are conducted in war: fight, flight, victory, peace. The term “peace” seems to be taken from “pact.” Later, however, peace is received; first a treaty is entered.

Foedus est pax quae fit inter dimicantes, vel a fide, vel a fetialibus, id est sacerdotibus, dictum. Per ipsos enim fiebant foedera, sicut per saeculares bella. Alii foedera dicta putant a porca foede et crudeliter occisa, cuius mors optabatur ei qui a pace resilisset.

A treaty is the peace that is made between combatants, and is said to be named either from fides (faith), or from the fetials, that is, priests. For through them treaties were made, just as wars through seculars. Others think treaties are so called from a sow foully and cruelly slain, whose death was wished upon him who should recoil from the peace.

Vergilius (Aen. 8,641):

Virgil (Aen. 8,641):

Et caesa iungebant foedera porca.
Foederis partes indutiae: et dictae indutiae quasi in dies otia.

And they bound the treaties (foedera) with a slaughtered sow.
Truces are parts of a treaty; and they are called “indutiae,” as if “leisures for days.”

II. DE TRIVMPHIS.

2. ON TRIUMPHS.

[1] Omne regnum saeculi huius bellis quaeritur, victoriis propagatur. Victoria dicta quod vi, id est virtute, adipiscatur. Hoc est enim ius gentium, vim vi expellere.

[1] Every kingdom of this age is sought by wars, and is propagated by victories. Victory is so called because it is obtained by vis, that is, by virtue (valor). For this is the ius gentium: to expel force by force.

Nam turpis est dolo quaesita victoria. Certa autem victoria est vel occisio hostis, vel [ex]spoliatio, vel utrumque. Non est autem iucunda victoria quae per inmensa detrimenta contingit: et hoc est, quod laudat Sallustius (Hist.

For a victory sought by guile is shameful. A sure victory, however, is either the slaying of the enemy, or the [ex]spoliation, or both. Nor is a victory pleasing which comes about through immense losses: and this is what Sallust praises (Hist.

3,29) duces victoriam incruento exercitu deportasse.

(3,29) that the leaders have carried off victory with a bloodless army.

[2] Pompa dicta est Graeca significatione, APO TOU POMPEUEIN, hoc est publice ostentari. Praecedit autem victoria pompam, ideo quod ituris ad hoc certamen primum est victoriae votum.

[2] Pomp is so called in Greek signification, APO TOU POMPEUEIN, that is, to be publicly ostended. But victory precedes the pomp, for this reason, that for those about to go to this contest the first thing is the vow for victory.

[3] Tropeum dictum APO TES TROPES, id est a conversione hostis et fuga. Nam ab eo quod hostem quis fugasset merebatur tropeum; qui occidisset, triumphum, qui dictus est APO TES THRIAMBES, id est ab exultatione. Plenae enim victoriae triumphus debetur; semiplenae tropeum, quia nondum plenam est victoriam consecutus: non enim optinuit, sed fugavit exercitum.

[3] Trophy (tropeum) is said from APO TES TROPES, that is, from the turning-about (conversion) of the enemy and his flight. For from the fact that someone had put the enemy to flight he earned a trophy; he who had slain (them), a triumph, which is called APO TES THRIAMBES, that is, from exultation. For a triumph is owed to a full victory; to a half-full victory, a trophy, because he has not yet achieved a full victory: for he did not secure possession, but put the army to flight.

Haec tamen nomina scriptores confundunt. Tranquillus (Prat. 109) autem triumphum Latine dicit potius appellatum, quod is, qui triumphans urbem ingrederetur, tripertito iudicio honoraretur: nam primum de triumpho duci concedendo exercitum iudicare solitum erat, secundo senatum, tertio populum.

These names, however, the writers confound. Tranquillus (Prat. 109), moreover, says that triumph was rather appellated in Latin because he who, triumphing, entered the city would be honored by a tripartite judgment: for first the army was accustomed to judge concerning granting a triumph to the leader, secondly the senate, thirdly the people.

[4] Erat autem Romanorum mos ut triumphantes quadrigis veherentur, ex illo quod soliti sint priores duces hoc habitu bella inire. Quicumque autem in conflictu vicisset, palma aurea coronabatur, quia palma stimulos habet; qui vero sine conflictu fugientem prostrasset, laurea, eo quod haec arbor sine spinis est.

[4] Moreover, it was the custom of the Romans that those triumphing were borne in four-horse chariots, from the fact that earlier leaders were accustomed to enter wars in this attire. And whoever had won in conflict was crowned with a golden palm, because the palm has spurs; but whoever had laid low a fugitive without conflict was crowned with laurel, for this tree is without thorns.

[5] Namque et purpuream et palmatam togam triumphantes induebantur, et scipionem cum sceptro in manu gerebant ad imitationem victoriae Scipionis; licet et scipio baculum sit quo homines innituntur. Vnde et ille primus Cornelius Scipio appellatus est, quia in foro pater eius caecus innixus eo ambulabat. Super scipionem autem aquila supersedebat, ob indicium quod per victoriam quasi ad supernam nagnitudinem accederent.

[5] For the triumphing men put on both the purple and the palm‑embroidered toga, and they bore a scipio with a scepter in the hand in imitation of Scipio’s victory; although a scipio is also a staff upon which men lean. Whence also that first Cornelius Scipio was so called, because in the forum his father, blind, walked leaning upon it. Moreover, above the scipio an eagle sat, as a sign that through victory they were, as it were, approaching to supernal greatness.

[6] Inde et colore rufo perliniebantur, quasi imitarentur divini ignis effigiem. Quod vero a carnifice contingebantur, id esse indicium ut ad tantum fastigium evecti mediocritatis humanae commonerentur.

[6] And so they were also smeared with a rufous color, as if they were imitating the effigy of divine fire. But the fact that they were touched by the executioner was an indication that, though borne up to so great a summit, they should be reminded of the mediocrity of the human condition.

[7] Duobus autem generibus deletur exercitus; aut internicione, aut dispersione. Sallustius (Hist. frag.

[7] Moreover, an army is destroyed in two ways; either by internecine slaughter, or by dispersion. Sallust (Hist. frag.

inc. 6), 'Hostes,' inquit, 'oppressi, aut dilapsi forent.' Sic et utrumque Vergilius. Internicione (Aen.

inc. 6), 'The enemies,' he says, 'would have been crushed, or scattered.' Thus too Vergil both. By internecine destruction (Aen.

1,69):

Submersasque obrue puppis.

And overwhelm the submerged ships.

Dispersione (Aen. 1,70):

By dispersion (Aen. 1,70):

Aut age diversos et dissice corpora ponto.

Or else drive them diverse and dash their bodies upon the sea.

[8] Spolia hostium: praeda, manubiae, exuviae, partes. Praeda a praedando vocata. Manubiae, eo quod manibus detrahuntur.

[8] The spoils of the enemy: booty (praeda), hand-takings (manubiae), things stripped off (exuviae), shares (partes). Praeda, so called from praedando, predation/plundering. Manubiae, because they are drawn off by the hands.

Haec et exuviae ab exuendo dictae, quia exuuntur. Haec et partes a pari divisione pro personarum qualitate, et laborum iusta decisione. Spolia autem a palleis, quasi expallia; victis enim detrahuntur.

These too are called exuviae from exuendo (“stripping off”), because they are stripped off. These too are partes from equal division, according to the quality of persons, and by a just apportioning of labors. Spolia, moreover, are from palleae, as if expallia; for they are pulled off from the vanquished.

III. DE SIGNIS.

3. ON THE SIGNS.

[1] Signa bellorum dicuntur quod ex his exercitus et pugnandi et victoriae receptui accipit symbolon. Nam aut per vocem tubae, aut per symbolon admonetur exercitus.

[1] The battle signs are so called because from these the army receives the symbolon both for fighting and for the recall after victory. For either by the voice of the trumpet, or by the symbolon, the army is admonished.

[2] Legionum principalia signa: aquilae, dracones et pilae. Aquilae ideo, quod eadem avis Iovis in armis auspicio fuerit. Nam dum idem Iovis adversus Titanas proficisceretur, aquilam ei in auspicio apparuisse ferunt; quam ille pro indicio victoriae acceptam tutelae suae auspicatus, eam legioni signum dedit; quo factum est ut deinceps militum signis committeretur.

[2] The principal standards of the legions: eagles, dragons, and pilae (pikes). Eagles for this reason, because that same bird of Jove had been by auspice in arms. For when that same Jove was setting out against the Titans, they report that an eagle appeared to him in auspice; which he, having accepted as an indication of victory and having inaugurated to his own tutelage by auspice, gave as a standard to the legion; whence it came about that thereafter it was committed to the soldiers’ standards.

Cuius meminit Lucanus dicens (1,7): Signa pares aquilas et pila minantia pilis.

Of which Lucan makes mention, saying (1.7):
Standards—paired eagles and pila threatening with javelins.

[3] Draconum signa ab Apolline morte Pythonis serpentis inchoata sunt. Dehinc a Graecis et Romanis in bello gestari coeperunt.

[3] The standards of the dragons were initiated by Apollo at the death of the serpent Python. Thereafter they began to be borne in war by the Greeks and the Romans.

[4] Pilam in signo constituisse fertur Augustus, propter nationes sibi in cuncto orbe subiectas, ut maius figuram orbis ostenderet.

[4] Augustus is said to have set a globe upon the standard, on account of the nations subjected to himself in the whole orb, so that he might display the figure of the orb more grandly.

[5] Vexillum et ipsud signum bellicum, tractum nomen habens a veli diminutione, quasi velxillum. Sub Romulo autem fasciculos feni pro vexillis milites habuerunt: hinc et manipuli appellantur; manipulos enim dicimus fasces feni quod manum inpleant. Cetera signa diversis praelata imaginibus secundum militarem consuetudinem existunt, per quas exercitus permixtionem proeliorum agnoscitur.

[5] The vexillum, itself a war-sign, has a name drawn from the diminutive of velum, as if “velxillum.” Under Romulus, moreover, the soldiers had bundles of hay in place of vexilla: hence they are also called maniples; for we call “maniples” bundles of hay because they fill the hand. The other standards, borne before with diverse images according to military custom, exist, by which the army is recognized amid the commingling of battles.

IV. DE BVCINIS.

4. ON BUCCINAE.

[1] Bucina est qua signum datur in hostem, dicta a voce, quasi vocina. Nam pagani agrestesque ad omnem usum bucina ad conpita convocabantur: proprie ergo hoc agrestibus signum fuit. De quo Propertius (4,1,13):

[1] The bucina is that by which a signal is given against the enemy, named from voice, as if “vocina.” For pagans and rustics were convoked by the bucina to the cross-roads for every use: therefore this was properly a signal for rustics. Concerning which Propertius (4,1,13):

Bucina cogebat priscos ad arma Quirites.

The bucina compelled the ancient Quirites to arms.

[2] Huius clangor bucinum dicitur. Tubam Tyrrheni primi invenerunt; unde [et] Vergilius (Aen. 8,526):

[2] The clangor of this is called the bucinum. The Tyrrhenians first invented the tuba; whence [also] Vergil (Aen. 8,526):

Tyrrhenusque tubae mugire per aethera clangor.

and the Tyrrhenian clangor of the tuba bellowed through the aether.

Hanc enim a Tyrrhenis praedonibus excogitatam, cum dispersi circa maritimas oras non facile ad quamque praedae occasionem voce aut bucina convocantur, vento plerumque obstrepente.

For this, indeed, was devised by Tyrrhenian pirates, since, scattered around the maritime shores, they are not easily summoned to each occasion of plunder by voice or by bucina, the wind for the most part drowning it out.

[3] Hinc postea bellicis certaminibus adhibita est ad denuntianda signa bellorum, ut ubi exaudiri praeco per tumultum non poterat, sonitus tubae clangentis adtingeret. Tubam autem dictam quasi tofam, id est cavam.

[3] Hence afterwards it was employed in warlike contests for announcing the war‑signals, so that where the herald could not be heard through the tumult, the sound of the blaring trumpet might reach. The trumpet, moreover, is said to be called as if “tofa,” that is, “hollow.”

[4] Item tubam quasi tibiam. Inter tubam autem et bucinam veteres discernebant. Nam bucina insonans sollicitudinem ad bella denuntiabat.

[4] Likewise, tuba as if “tibia.” But the ancients distinguished between the tuba and the bucina. For a sounding bucina proclaimed the alarm for war.

Vergilius (Aen. 7,519):

Vergil (Aeneid 7,519):

Qua bucina signum
dira dedit.

By which the buccina gave
a dire signal.

Tuba autem proelium indicabant, ut (Virg. Aen. 9,503):

However, the trumpets indicated battle, as (Virgil, Aeneid 9,503):

At tuba terribilem sonitum,

But the trumpet gave a terrible sound,

Cuius sonus varius est. Nam interdum canitur ut bella committantur, interdum ut insequantur eos qui fugiunt, interdum receptui. Nam receptus dicitur quo se exercitus recipit, unde et signa receptui canere dicuntur.

Whose sound is varied. For sometimes it is sounded so that battles may be joined, sometimes so that they may pursue those who flee, sometimes for the retreat. For “receptus” is said of that by which the army withdraws, whence also the signals are said “to sound for the retreat.”

[5] Classica sunt cornua quae convocandi causa erant facta, et a calando classica dicebantur. De quibus Vergilius (Aen. 7,637):

[5] The classica are horns which were made for the purpose of convoking, and from calling (calare) they were called classica. Concerning which Virgil (Aen. 7,637):

Classica iamque sonant.

And now the clarions are sounding.

Apud Amazonas autem non tuba, sicut a regibus, sed a regina sistro vocabatur feminarum exercitus.

Among the Amazons, however, the army of women was called not by a trumpet, as by kings, but by the queen with a sistrum.

V. DE ARMIS.

5. ON ARMS.

[1] Arma generaliter omnium rerum instrumenta sunt; unde et ubi reponuntur, armaria dicta sunt. Item arma et tela omnium generum; sed arma sunt quibus ipsi tuemur, tela sunt quae emittimus. Nam arma duplicia sunt: id est vel quibus percutimus, vel quibus tegimur.

[1] Arms are, generally, the instruments of all things; whence also the places where they are put away are called armories. Likewise, arms and missiles of every kind; but arms are those with which we ourselves are defended, missiles are those which we emit. For arms are twofold: that is, either those with which we strike, or those with which we are shielded.

[2] Arma autem proprie dicta sunt eo quod armos tegunt. Nam arma vel ab armis dicuntur, id est ab umeris, ut (Virg. Aen. 11,644):

[2] But arms are properly so called because they cover the shoulders. For arms are said either from the armi, that is, from the shoulders, as (Virg. Aen. 11,644):

Latos huic hasta per armos
acta tremit;

Through this one's broad shoulders the spear
driven, quivers;

vel APO TOU AREOS, id est a Marte.

or from APO TOU AREOS, that is, from Mars.

VI. DE GLADIIS.

6. ON SWORDS.

[1] Gladius generaliter dicitur ensis in proelio; sed ensis ferrum tantum, gladius vero totus. Proprie autem appellatus gladius, quod gulam dividit, id est cervicem secat. Ad hoc enim primum est factus; nam cetera membra securibus magis caeduntur, collum gladio tantum.

[1] The gladius is generally called a sword (ensis) in battle; but the ensis is the iron only, whereas the gladius is the whole. Properly, however, it is called gladius because it divides the gullet, that is, it cuts the neck. For it was first made for this; for the other limbs are more often hewn with axes, the neck with the sword only.

[2] Acies autem gladii ab acumine dicta. Capulus vocatus vel quia caput est gladii, vel quia ibi capitur ut teneatur: nam alias acies ferri non sinit. Mucro non tantum gladii est, sed et cuiuslibet teli acumen, dictus a longitudine.

[2] Moreover, the edge of the sword is named from the acumen. The hilt is so called either because it is the head of the sword, or because there it is taken so that it may be held; for otherwise the edge of the iron does not allow it. The point (mucro) is not only of the sword, but also the acumen—the point—of any weapon, said to be so from its length.

Nam MAKRON Graeci longum vocant; hinc et machaera. Machaera autem est gladius longus ex una parte acutus.

For the Greeks call “long” MAKRON; hence also machaera. But a machaera is a long sword sharp on one side.

[3] Framea vero gladius ex utraque parte acutus, quam vulgo spatam vocant. Ipsa est et romphea. Framea autem dicta quia ferrea est: nam sicut ferramentum, sic framea dicitur; ac proinde omnis gladius framea.

[3] The framea, indeed, is a sword sharpened on both sides, which they commonly call a spatha. It is the same as the rhomphaea. ‘Framea,’ however, is so called because it is of iron: for just as ‘ferramentum,’ so ‘framea’ is said; and consequently every sword is a ‘framea.’

[4] Spatha a passione dicitur, Graeco verbo, quoniam PATHEIN Graece dicitur pati; unde et patior et patitur dicimus. Alii spatam Latine autumant dictam, eo quod spatiosa sit, id est lata et ampla: unde et spatula in pecoribus.

[4] Spatha is said to be from passion, a Greek word, since PATHEIN in Greek is to suffer; whence also we say patior and patitur. Others assert that spatha is Latinly named, because it is spacious, that is, broad and ample: whence also spatula among cattle.

[5] Semispatium gladium est a media spatae longitudine appellatum, non, ut inprudens vulgus dicit, sine spatio, dum sagitta velocior sit.

[5] Semispatium is a sword, appellated from the middle length of the spatha, not, as the imprudent vulgar crowd says, “without space,” since the arrow is swifter.

[6] Pugio a pungendo et transfigendo vocatus. Est enim gladius parvus et bis acutus lateri adhaerens. Idem et clunabulum dictum, quod religetur ad clunem.

[6] The pugio is so called from stabbing and transfixing. For it is a small sword, double-edged, adhering to the side. The same is also called a clunabulum, because it is bound to the buttock/hip.

[7] Chelidoniacus gladius ferrum est latum, cuius duplex mucro ac bifurcus in modum caudae hirundineae formatur; unde et chelidoniacus dicitur.

[7] The chelidoniac sword is a broad iron blade, whose point, double and bifurcate, is formed in the manner of a swallow’s tail; whence it is also called chelidoniac.

[8] Sica a secando dicta. Est enim gladius brevis quo maxime utuntur qui apud Italos latrocinia exercent; a quo et sicarii dicti. Tranquillus (lud.

[8] The sica is named from cutting. For it is a short sword which those who practice latrociny among the Italians most especially use; from which also the sicarii are named. Tranquillus (lud.

hist. 195) autem dicit: 'Dum cuiusdam gladiatoris in ludum emissi gladius curvatus fuisset ex acie recta, procucurrit unus ad id corrigendum; tumque a pugnante responsum est: Sic ha pugnabo. Inde sicae nomen datum.'

hist. 195) however says: 'While the sword of a certain gladiator, sent into the arena, had been bent from its straight edge, one ran forward to correct it; and then the combatant replied: Thus with this I will fight. From that the name sica was given.'

[9] Secures signa sunt quae ante consules ferebantur; quas Hispani ab usu Francorum per derivationem Franciscas vocant. Ea signa portari ne aut usum perderent belli, aut vacans aspectum amitteret gladiorum.

[9] The secures are standards which were borne before the consuls; which the Spaniards, from the use of the Franks, by derivation call Franciscas. Those standards are carried, lest either they lose their use in war, or the vacant aspect should lose the sight of swords.

VII. DE HASTIS.

7. ON SPEARS.

[1] Hasta est contus cum ferro; cuius diminutivum facit hastilia. Nomen autem hasta ab astu sumpsit; unde et astutia.

[1] A spear is a pole with iron; its diminutive forms hastilia. Moreover, the name hasta took its origin from astu (“craft”); whence also astutia (“astuteness”).

[2] Contum ferrum non habet, sed tantum cuspide acuto est. Vergilius (Aen. 5,208):

[2] A contus does not have iron, but only ends in a sharp point. Vergil (Aen. 5,208):

Eferatasque trudes et acuto cuspide contos.

and savage handspikes and poles with an acute cusp.

Contum autem quasi conitum: est enim conum acuta rotunditas.

The contus, however, as if “conitum”: for it is the sharp rotundity of a cone.

[3] Trudes amites sunt cum lunato ferro, quae Graeci aplustria dicunt. ÝA trudibus autem verumÝ quod trudunt et detrudunt. Vergilius (Aen. 5,208):

[3] Trudes are amites with a moon-shaped iron, which the Greeks call aplustria. ÝAnd as for trudes indeedÝ because they thrust and push down. Vergil (Aen. 5,208):

Eferatasque trudes.

And the feral push-poles.

[4] Venabula dicta quasi venatui abilia, vel quia venientem excipiunt, quasi excipiabula. Excipiunt enim apros expectantque leones, intrant ursos, sit tantum firma manus (cf. Mart. 14,30).

[4] Hunting-spears are called so as if “able for venation” (i.e., fit for the hunt), or because they receive the one coming, as if “receiving-tools.” For they take on boars and even await lions; they enter bears—only let the hand be steady (cf. Mart. 14,30).

[5] Lancea est hasta amentum habens in medio: dicta autem lancea quod aequa lance, id est aequali amento, ponderata vibratur.

[5] A lance is a spear having an amentum in the middle: moreover it is called a lance because, as on a level scale-pan (aequa lance), that is, with an equal amentum, when balanced it is brandished.

[6] Amentum vinculum est iaculorum hastilium qui mediis hastis aptatur: et inde amentum quod media hasta religatur ut iaculetur.

[6] The amentum is a binding of the shafts of javelins, which is fitted to the middles of spears; and hence “amentum,” because it is bound to the middle of the spear, so that one may jaculate it.

[7] Clava est qualis fuit Herculis, dicta quod sit clavis ferreis invicem religata; et est cubito semis facta in longitudine. Haec et cateia, quam Horatius caiam dicit. Est enim genus Gallici teli ex materia quam maxime lenta, quae iacta quidem non longe propter gravitatem evolat, sed quo pervenit, vi nimia perfringit; quod si ab artifice mittatur, rursum redit ad eum qui misit.

[7] The club is such as was Hercules’, so called because it is bound together with iron nails; and it is made a cubit and a half in length. This is also the cateia, which Horace calls the “caia.” For it is a kind of Gallic missile from material as very pliant as possible, which, when hurled, indeed does not fly far on account of its heaviness, but wherever it arrives, it breaks through with excessive force; and if it is cast by an artificer, it returns back to the one who sent it.

Huic meminit Vergilius dicens (Aen. 7,741):

Vergil makes mention of this, saying (Aen. 7,741):

Teutonico ritu soliti torquere cateias

In Teutonic rite, accustomed to hurl the cateias

Vnde et eos Hispani et Galli tautanos vocant.

Whence also the Spaniards and the Gauls call them tautanos.

[8] Falarica est telum ingens torno factum, habens ferrum cubitale et rotunditatem de plumbo in modum sphaerae. In ipsa summitate dicitur etiam et ignem habere adfixum. Hoc autem telo pugnatur de turribus, quas dici manifestum est. Iuvenalis (6,589):

[8] The falarica is an enormous missile made on a lathe, having an iron a cubit long and a rotundity of lead in the manner of a sphere. On its very summit it is said also to have fire affixed. With this weapon one fights from towers, which it is manifest are so called. Iuvenalis (6,589):

Consulis ante falas delphinorumque columnas.

Before the consul’s galleries and the dolphin-columns.

A falis igitur dicta est falarica, sicut a muro muralis. Sane falaricam Lucanus dicit nervis mitti tortilibus et quadam machina (6,198):

From the falae, therefore, the falarica is said to be named, just as mural is from wall. Indeed, Lucan says that the falarica is launched by twisted sinews and by a certain machine (6,198):

Vt nunc (tortilibus) vibrata falarica nervis.

As now the falarica, vibrated by (twisted) sinews.

Vergilius vero ait Turnum manu Ýfalaricae Ýiaculasse (Aen. 9,705).

Vergil, however, says that Turnus hurled a falarica with his hand (Aen. 9,705).

[9] Pila sunt arma iaculorum atque telorum a torquendo, vel emittendo, vocatae. De quibus Lucanus (1,7):

[9] Pila are arms of javelins and missiles, so called from twisting (torquing) or from emitting. Of which Lucan (1,7):

Signa pares aquilas et pila minantia pilis.

Standards, equal to the eagles, and pila menacing with javelins.

Cuius singulare pilum dicitur. Telum vocatur secundum Graecam etymologiam, APO TOU TELOTHEN, quidquid longe iaci potest: quamquam abusive dicatur et gladium, ut est illud (Virg. Aen. 9,747):

Whose singular is called pilum. It is called a missile according to the Greek etymology, APO TOU TELOTHEN (“from afar”), whatever can be thrown far: although by abuse it is also said of a sword, as is that line (Virg. Aen. 9,747):

At non hoc telum, mea quod vi dextera versat.

But not this weapon, which my right hand with force wields.

Proprie autem telum a longitudine dictum: unde et mustelam dicimus quod longior sit quam mus.

Properly, however, the weapon (telum) is so called from length: whence also we call the weasel mustela, because it is longer than a mouse (mus).

[11] Cuspis hastilis amentata, a cespite dictus, quod est virgulta. Vergilius (Aen. 7,817):

[11] A spearhead on a shaft, equipped with an amentum, is said to be from cespes, which is brushwood. Virgil (Aen. 7,817):

Et pastorale(m) praefixa cuspide myrtum.
Proprie autem cuspis posterior pars hastae est.

And the shepherd’s myrtle with a cusp fixed on.
Properly, however, the cusp is the posterior part of the spear.

VIII. DE SAGITTIS.

8. ON ARROWS.

[1] Sagitta a sagaci ictu, id est veloci ictu, vocata. Pinnis enim fertur, quasi avis, ut celeriter mors percurrat ad hominem. Has primum Cretenses usi sunt, quibus pinnae, ut diximus, ideo adglutinantur ut leves sint et pervolent.

[1] The arrow is named from the sagacious stroke, that is, the swift stroke. For it is borne by feathers, as if a bird, so that death may run quickly to a man. These the Cretans first used, to which feathers, as we have said, are for that reason agglutinated, so that they may be light and fly through.

[2] Scaptos. Spicula sunt sagittae vel lanceae breves, ab spicarum specie nuncupatae.

[2] Scaptos. Spicules are small arrows or short lances, named from the appearance of ears of grain.

[3] Scorpio est sagitta venenata arcu vel tormentis excussa, quae dum ad hominem venerit, virus, quo figit, infundit; unde et scorpio nomen accepit.

[3] The scorpion is a poisoned arrow shot by a bow or by engines, which, when it has come to a man, infuses the poison with which it pierces; whence also the scorpion received its name.

IX. DE FARETRIS.

9. ON QUIVERS.

[1] Faretra sagittarum theca, a ferendo iacula dicta; sicut et feretrum, ubi funus defertur. Quae idcirco etymologiam communem habent, quia pharetra mortem, feretrum mortuum portat.

[1] The quiver is a theca of arrows, named from bearing darts; just as the feretrum, where the funeral is borne. Which therefore have a common etymology, because the quiver carries death, the bier carries the dead.

[2] Coriti proprie sunt arcuum thecae, sicut sagittarum faretrae. Vagina appellata eo quod in ea mucro vel gladius baiuletur.

[2] Coryti are properly cases for bows, just as quivers are for arrows. The scabbard is so called because in it the point or the sword is borne.

[3] Teca ab eo quod aliquid receptum tegat, C littera pro G posita. Alii Graeco nomine thecam vocari adserunt, quod ibi reponatur aliquid. Inde et bibliotheca librorum repositio dicitur.

[3] Teca, from the fact that it covers something received, with the letter C set in place of G. Others assert that it is called theca by a Greek name, because something is put back there. Hence also bibliotheca is called a repository of books.

[4] Dolones sunt vaginae ligneae, intra quas latet pugio sub baculi specie. Dolones autem a dolo dicti sunt, quod fallant et decipiant ferro, quum speciem praeferant ligni. Hos vulgus Graeco nomine oxos vocant, id est acutos.

[4] Dolōnēs are wooden sheaths, within which a dagger lies hidden under the appearance of a staff. Moreover, they are called Dolōnēs from dolus, “deceit,” because they cheat and beguile with iron, since they present the appearance of wood. The common folk call these by the Greek name oxos, that is, “acute/pointed.”

Vnde et apud medicos acutus morbus OXEIA vocatur. Arcus vocatus eo quod arceat adversarium.

Whence also among physicians an acute disease is called OXEIA. The bow is called so because it wards off the adversary.

[5] Inde et arces dicuntur a quibus arcentur hostes. Item arcus ob speciem, quod sint curvati artius.

[5] Thence also citadels are so called, from which enemies are warded off. Likewise arches from their appearance, because they are more tightly curved.

X. DE FVNDIS.

X. ON SLINGS.

[1] Funda dicta eo quod ex ea fundantur lapides, id est emittantur.

[1] The sling is called a funda because from it stones are poured out, that is, emitted.

[2] Balista genus tormenti, ab emittendo iacula dicta; BALEIN enim Graece mittere dicitur. Torquetur enim verbere nervorum, et magni vi iacit aut hastas aut saxa. Inde et fundibalus, quasi fundens et emittens.

[2] The ballista, a kind of torment (engine), is so called from emitting javelins; for BALEIN in Greek is said to mean “to send.” For it is twisted by the lash of sinews, and with great force it hurls either spears or stones. Hence also fundibalus, as if “pouring out and emitting.”

Contra balistam testudo valet: series enim fit armorum umbonibus inter se conligatis.

Against the ballista the testudo is effective: for a series is made of shields, their umbos fastened to one another.

XI. DE ARIETE.

11. ON THE RAM.

[1] Arieti nomen species dedit, eo quod cum inpetu inpingit murum in modum arietum pugnantium. Validae enim ac nodosae arboris caput ferro vestitur, eaque suspensa funibus multorum manu ad murum inpellitur, deinde retrorsum ducta maiori inpetu destinatur, sicque crebris ictibus concussum muri latus cedit cavatumque inrumpit ac fenestram facit.

[1] The ram took its name from its form, because it strikes the wall with impetus in the manner of rams fighting. For the head of a strong and knotted tree is clothed with iron, and, suspended by ropes, it is driven against the wall by the hands of many; then, drawn back, it is directed with greater impetus; and thus, by frequent blows, the side of the wall, shaken, yields, and, hollowed, it irrupts and makes a window.

[2] Contra inpulsum arietis remedium est saccus paleis plenus et in eum locum demissus quo aries percutit; laxo enim saccorum sinu ictus arietis inlisus mollitur. Duriora enim mollioribus facilius cedunt.

[2] Against the impulse of the ram the remedy is a sack full of chaff, let down into that place where the ram strikes; for by the loose hollow of the sacks the blow of the ram, having been dashed in, is softened. For harder things yield more easily to softer.

[3] Plutei sunt crates corio crudo intextae, quae in opere faciendo hosti obiciuntur.

[3] Plutei are lattices interwoven with rawhide, which are set before the enemy in the making of the work.

[4] Musculus cuniculo similis fit, quo murus perfoditur; ex quo et appellatus, quasi murusculus.

[4] The musculus is made similar to a cuniculus, by which the wall is bored through; whence it is also called, as if “little wall.”

XII. DE CLYPEIS.

CHAPTER 12. ON SHIELDS.

[1] Clipeus est scutus maior, dictus ab eo quod clipet, id est celet, corpus periculisque subducat, APO TOU KLEPTEIN. Oppositus enim sua defensione ab hastis et iaculis corpus munit. Clypeus autem peditum est, scutus equitum.

[1] The clipeus is a larger scutum, so called from the fact that it “clips,” that is, conceals, and withdraws the body from dangers—APO TOU KLEPTEIN (“from ‘to steal’”). For, set in opposition with its own defense, it protects the body from spears and javelins. The clypeus, moreover, is for foot-soldiers, the scutum for horsemen.

[2] Scutum appellatum eo quod a se excutiat telorum ictum. Vt enim telis resistatur, clipeus antefertur. Vmbo scuti pars media est, quasi umbilicus.

[2] The scutum is so called because it shakes off from itself the stroke of missiles. For, in order that missiles may be resisted, the clypeus is borne in front. The umbo of the scutum is the middle part, as if the umbilicus.

[3] Ancile vocatur scutum breve et rotundum. De quo Vergilius (Aen. 7,188):

[3] An ancile is called a short and round shield. About which Vergil (Aen. 7, 188):

Laeva ancile gerebat.

The left hand bore the ancile.

Et ancile dictum ab ancisione, quod sit [ab] omni parte veluti ancisum ac rotundum. Ovidius (Fast. 3,377):

And ancile is said from incision, because it is [from] every part as if incised and rotund. Ovid (Fasti 3,377):

Idque ancile vocant, quod ab omni parte recisum:
quaque notes oculis, angulus omnis abest.

And they call it the ancile, because it is cut off on every side:
and wherever you note with your eyes, every angle is absent.

[4] Peltum scutum brevissimum in modum lunae mediae. De quibus meminit liber Regum (3 Reg. 10,16): 'Fecit rex Salomon ducenta scuta de auro puro et trecentas peltas ex auro probato.'

[4] The peltum, a very short shield in the manner of a half-moon. Of which the Book of Kings makes mention (3 Kings 10,16): 'King Solomon made two hundred shields of pure gold and three hundred peltas from proved gold.'

[5] [S]cetra scutum loreum sine ligno, quo utuntur Afri et Mauri. De quo poeta (Virg. Aen. 7,732):

[5] [S]cetra, a leathern shield without wood, which the Africans and the Moors use. About which the poet (Virgil, Aeneid 7,732):

Laevas cetra tegit.

The cetra covers the left hands.

[6] Parma levia arma, quasi parva, non clypeum. Dicitur autem et testudo scutum, nam in modum testudinis fit clypeus. Est et testudo scutorum conexio curvata in testudinis modum.

[6] The parma is light arms, as if “small,” not the clypeus. Moreover, “testudo” is also said of a shield, for the clypeus is made in the manner of a tortoise. And the testudo is also a connection of shields, curved in the manner of a tortoise.

Namque in armorum generibus milites etiam ab animalibus nomina sumunt, ut aries; et Sallustius (Hist. 3,36): 'In modum,' inquit, 'iricii militaris.'

For indeed, in the kinds of arms, soldiers also take names from animals, as “ram”; and Sallust (Hist. 3,36): “In the manner,” he says, “of a military hedgehog.”

XIII. DE LORICIS.

13. ON CUIRASSES.

[1] Lorica vocata eo quod loris careat; solis enim circulis ferreis contexta est.

[1] The lorica is so called because it lacks thongs; for it is woven only of iron circles (rings).

[2] Squama est lorica ferrea ex lamminis ferreis aut aereis concatenata in modum squamae piscis, et ex ipso splendore squanarum et similitudine nuncupata. De ciliciis autem et poliuntur loricae et teguntur.

[2] Scale(-armor) is an iron cuirass concatenated from iron or bronze laminae in the manner of a fish’s scale, and named from the very splendor of the scales and their likeness. And with haircloths (cilicia) cuirasses are both polished and covered.

XIV. DE GALEIS.

14. ON HELMETS.

[1] Cassis de lammina est, galea de coreo. Nam galeros coreum dicitur. Cassidam autem a Tuscis nominatam: illi enim galeam cassim nominant, credo a capite.

[1] A cassis is from lamina (plate), a galea from leather. For a galerus is called coreum. But cassis is named by the Tuscans: for they call a galea cassis, I believe from caput (“head”).

[2] Apex est quod in summa galea eminet, quo figitur crista; quam Graeci CHONON vocant. Nam conus est curvatura quae in galea prominet, super quam cristae sunt.

[2] The apex is that which projects on the top of the helmet, by which the crest is fixed; which the Greeks call CHONON. For the conus is the curvature which projects on the helmet, upon which the crests are.

XV. DE FORO.

15. ON THE FORUM.

[1] Forus est exercendarum litium locus, a fando dictus [sive a Foroneo rege, qui primus Graecis leges dedit]. Qui locus et Prorostra vocatur ab eo quod ex bello Punico captis navibus Carthaginensium rostra ablata sunt, et in foro Romano praefixa, ut esset huius insigne victoriae. Constat autem forus causa, lege et iudice.

[1] The forum is the place for the exercising of litigations, called from speaking [or from King Phoroneus, who first gave laws to the Greeks]. That place is also called the Prorostra from the fact that, after the ships of the Carthaginians were captured in the Punic war, the rostra (ship-prows) were taken off and affixed in the Roman forum, so that it might be the insignia of this victory. Moreover, the forum is constituted by the case, the law, and the judge.

[2] Causa vocata a casu quo evenit. Est enim materia et origo negotii, necdum discussionis examine patefacta; quae dum praeponitur causa est, dum discutitur iudicium est, dum finitur, iustitia. Vocatum autem iudicium quasi iurisdictio, et iustitia quasi iuris status.

[2] The cause is so called from the chance by which it comes about. For it is the material and origin of the affair, not yet laid open by the examination of discussion; which, while it is set forth, is a cause; while it is discussed, it is a judgment; when it is finished, justice. And judgment is called, as it were, jurisdiction, and justice, as it were, the status of law.

Iudicium autem prius inquisitio vocabatur; unde et actores iudiciorum et praepositos quaestores vel quaesitores vocamus.

But a judgment was formerly called an inquisition; whence also we call the prosecutors of trials and the appointed officials quaestors or quaesitors.

[3] Negotium multa significat: modo actum rei alicuius, cui contrarium est otium; modo actionem causae, quod est iurgium litis. Et dictum negotium quasi nec otium, id est sine otio. Negotium autem in causis, negotiatio in commerciis dicitur, ubi aliquid datur ut maiora lucrentur.

[3] Business (negotium) signifies many things: at one time the act of some matter, whose contrary is leisure (otium); at another, the action of a cause, which is the quarrel of the litigation. And it is called “negotium” as if “not-otium,” that is, “without leisure.” But “negotium” is said in regard to causes, “negotiation” in commerce, where something is given so that greater profits may be gained.

[4] Iurgium dictum quasi iuris garrium, eo quod hi qui causam dicunt iure disceptent. Lis a contentione limitis prius nomen sumpsit. De qua Vergilius (Aen. 12,898):

[4] Jurgium is said as if a garrulity of law, because those who plead a case dispute by law. Lis earlier took its name from a contention about a limit. About which Virgil (Aen. 12,898):

Limes erat positus, litem ut discerneret agri.

A boundary was placed, to discern the dispute of the field.

[5] Causa aut argumento aut probatione constat. Argumentum numquam testibus, numquam tabulis dat probationem, sed sola investigatione invenit veritatem; unde et dictum argumentum, id est argutum inventum. Probatio autem testibus et fide tabularum constat.

[5] A cause consists either in argument or in proof. An argument never furnishes proof by witnesses, never by documents, but by investigation alone finds the truth; whence its name “argument,” that is, a shrewd finding. Proof, however, consists in witnesses and in the credibility of documents.

[6] In omne autem iudicium sex personae quaeruntur: iudex, accusator, reus et tres testes. Iudex dictus quasi ius dicens populo, sive quod iure disceptet. Iure autem disceptare est iuste iudicare: non est autem iudex si non est in eo iustitia.

[6] In every judgment six persons are required: the judge, the accuser, the defendant, and three witnesses. The judge is so called as if “speaking law” to the people, or because he adjudicates by law. Moreover, to adjudicate by law is to judge justly: he is not a judge if justice is not in him.

[7] Accusator vocatus quasi adcausator, quia ad causam vocat eum quem appellat. Reus a re, qua petitur, nuncupatus, quia, quamvis sceleris conscius non sit, reus tamen dicitur, quamdiu in iudicio pro re aliqua petitur.

[7] The accuser is called as if an ad-causator, because he calls to the cause him whom he arraigns. The defendant (reus) is named from the res, the thing on account of which he is proceeded against, because, although he may not be conscious of a crime, he is nevertheless called a defendant so long as in court he is proceeded against for some matter.

[8] Testes antiquitus superstites dicebantur, eo quod super statum causae proferebantur. Nunc parte ablata nominis, testes vocari.

[8] Witnesses in antiquity were called “superstites,” because they were brought forward over the status of the case. Now, with a part of the name removed, they are called “testes.”

[9] Testis autem consideratur condicione, natura et vita. Condicione, si liber, non servus. Nam saepe servus metu dominantis testimonium subprimit veritatis.

[9] The witness, however, is considered by condition, nature, and life. By condition: if free, not a slave. For often a slave, from fear of his master, suppresses the testimony of truth.

Natura, si vir, non femina. Nam (Virg. Aen.

Nature, if a man, not a woman. For (Virg. Aen.

4,569):

Varium et mutabile semper
femina.

Varied and mutable always
is woman.

Vita, si innocens et integer actu. Nam si vita bona defuerit, fide carebit. Non enim potest iustitia cum scelerato habere societatem.

Life, if innocent and integral in action. For if a good life is lacking, it will lack faith. For justice cannot have society with a criminal.

[10] Duo sunt autem genera testium: aut dicendo id quod viderunt, aut proferendo id quod audierunt. Duobus autem modis testes delinquunt: quum aut falsa promunt, aut vera silentio obtegunt.

[10] There are, moreover, two genera (kinds) of witnesses: either by saying that which they have seen, or by proffering that which they have heard. In two ways, moreover, witnesses are delinquent: when either they bring forth false things, or cover true things with silence.

XVI. DE SPECTACVLIS.

16. ON SPECTACLES.

[1] Spectacula, ut opinor, generaliter nominantur voluptates quae non per semetipsa inquinant, sed per ea quae illic geruntur. Dicta autem spectacula eo quod hominibus publica ibi praebeatur inspectio. Haec et ludicra nuncupata, quod in ludis gerantur aut in cenis.

[1] Spectacles, as I suppose, are generally named pleasures which do not by themselves defile, but through those things which are carried on there. They are called spectacles because a public inspection is afforded there to human beings. These are also designated ludicra, because they are conducted in games or at dinners.

[2] Ludorum origo sic traditur: Lydios ex Asia transvenas in Etruria consedisse duce Tyrreno, qui fratri suo cesserat regni contentione. Igitur in Etruria inter ceteros ritus superstitionum suarum spectacula quoque religionis nomine instituerunt. Inde Romani arcessitos artifices mutuati sunt; et inde ludi a Lydis vocati sunt.

[2] The origin of the games is thus handed down: the Lydians, as transvenae from Asia, settled in Etruria under the leader Tyrrhenus, who had yielded to his brother in a contention for the kingdom. Therefore in Etruria, among the other rites of their superstitions, they also established spectacles under the name of religion. From there the Romans summoned artificers and borrowed; and from there the games were called from the Lydians.

Varro autem dicit ludos luso vocatos, quod iuvenes per dies festos solebant ludi exultatione populum delectare. Vnde et eum lusum iuvenum et diebus festis et templis et religionibus reputant.

But Varro says that the games are called from lūsus (“play”), because on feast days the youths were accustomed to delight the people by the exultation of play. Whence they also reckon that this play of the youths belongs both to feast days and to temples and to religions.

[3] Nihil iam de causa vocabuli, dum rei causa idolatria sit. Vnde et promiscue ludi Liberalia vocabantur, ob honorem Liberi patris. Ob hoc dispicienda est originis macula, ne bonum aestimes quod initium a malo accepit.

[3] Nothing now about the cause of the word, since the cause of the thing is idolatry. Whence also the games were promiscuously called the Liberalia, in honor of Father Liber. On this account the stain of the origin must be examined, lest you esteem as good that which took its beginning from evil.

Ludus autem aut gymnicus est, aut circensis, aut gladiatorius, aut scenicus.

However, a game is either gymnic, or circensian, or gladiatorial, or scenic.

XVII. DE LVDO GYMNICO.

17. ON THE GYMNIC GAME.

[1] Gymnicus ludus est velocitatis ac virium gloria. Cuius locus gymnasium dicitur, ubi exercentur athletae et cursorum velocitas conprobatur. Hinc accidit ut omnium prope artium exercitia gymnasia dicantur.

[1] The gymnic game is the glory of speed and of strength. The place of which is called the gymnasium, where athletes are exercised and the speed of runners is proved. Hence it happens that the exercises of almost all arts are called gymnasia.

[2] Ante enim in locis certantes cincti erant, ne nudarentur: post relaxato cingulo repente prostratus exanimatus est quidam cursor. Quare ex consilii decreto tunc archon Hippomenes ut nudi deinceps omnes exercitarentur permisit. Ex illo gymnasium dictum, quod iuvenes nudi exercentur in campo, ubi sola tantum verecunda operiuntur.

[2] For previously those competing in the venues were girded, lest they be laid bare; afterwards, when a belt was relaxed, a certain runner suddenly was cast down and expired. Wherefore, by decree of the council, the archon Hippomenes then permitted that henceforward all should exercise nude. From that the gymnasium is so called, because youths exercise nude in the field, where only the modest parts are covered.

XVIII. DE GENERIBVS GYMNICORVM.

18. ON THE KINDS OF GYMNIC GAMES.

[1] Genera gymnicorum quinque: id est saltus, cursus, iactus, virtus atque luctatio. Vnde ferunt quendam regem tot filios adolescentes habentem totidem generibus de regno iussisse contendere.

[1] The kinds of gymnic events are five: that is, the leap, the course (running), the throw, prowess (strength), and wrestling. Whence they say that a certain king, having just that number of adolescent sons, ordered them to contend for the kingdom in the same number of events.

XIX. DE SALTV.

19. ON THE LEAP.

[1] Saltus dictus quasi exilire in altum: est enim saltus altius exilire vel longius.

[1] A leap is so called as if “to leap forth into the height”: for a leap is to spring either higher or farther.

XX. DE CVRSV.

20. ON RUNNING.

[1] Cursus a velocitate crurum vocatur; est enim cursus celeritas pedum.

[1] Running is called from the velocity of the legs; for running is the celerity of the feet.

XXI. DE IACTV.

21. ON THROWING.

[1] Iactus dictus a iaciendo. Vnde et piscatorium rete iaculum dicitur. Huic arti usus est arreptos lapides procul ferire, hastas pondere librato iacere, sagittas arcu emittere.

[1] A throw (iactus) is so called from throwing (iacere). Whence also the fishing net is called a iaculum. The use of this art is to strike from afar with snatched-up stones, to hurl spears with the weight balanced, to emit arrows with a bow.

XXII. DE VIRTVTE.

22. ON VIRTUE.

[1] Virtus est inmensitas virium in labore et pondere corporis [vocata].

[1] Virtue is the immensity of strengths in the labor and weight of the body [so called].

XXIII. DE LVCTATIONE.

23. ON WRESTLING.

[1] Luctatio a laterum conplexu vocata, quibus comminus certantes innitent, qui Graeca appellatione athletae vocantur.

[1] Wrestling is called from the embrace of the flanks, upon which those contending at close quarters lean, who by the Greek appellation are called athletes.

XXIV. DE PALAESTRA.

24. ON THE PALAESTRA.

[1] Locus autem luctationis palaestra dicitur. Palaestram autem vel APO TES PALES, id est a luctatione, vel APO TOU PALLEIN, id est a motu ruinae fortis, nominatam dicunt, scilicet quod in luctando, cum medios arripiant, fere quatiant; idque apud Graecos PALLEIN vocatur. Quidam opinantur artem luctandi ursorum contentione monstratam: namque inter ceteras feras eos solos et erigi congressos et subsidere celeriter ac reverti, et modo manibus temtare invicem, modo conplexu abigere sese more luctantium.

[1] The place of wrestling, moreover, is called the palaestra. And they say the palaestra is named either APO TES PALES, that is, “from wrestling,” or APO TOU PALLEIN, that is, “from the motion of a strong overthrow,” namely because in wrestling, when they seize the middle parts, they generally shake them; and this among the Greeks is called PALLEIN. Some suppose the art of wrestling to have been shown by the contest of bears: for among other wild beasts, they alone both, when they meet, rear up and then quickly sink down and return, and at one time try one another with their hands, at another drive one another off with an embrace in the manner of wrestlers.

XXV. DE AGONE.

25. ON THE AGON.

[1] Quae Latine certamina, Graeci AGONAS vocant, a frequentia qua celebrabantur. Siquidem et omnem coetum atque conventum agona dici; ali quod in circulis et quasi agoniis, id est sine angulo locis, ederentur nuncupatos agonas putant.

[1] Those which in Latin are contests (certamina), the Greeks call AGONAS, from the thronging with which they were celebrated. For indeed every gathering and convention is said to be called an agon; others think that they were named agonas because they were put on in circles and, as it were, in “agoniis,” that is, in places without an angle.

XXVI. DE GENERIBVS AGONVM.

26. ON THE KINDS OF AGONES.

[1] Agonum genera fuisse: inmensitas virium, cursui celeritas, sagittandi peritia, standi patientia, ad citharam quoque vel tibias incedendi gestus, de moribus quoque, de forma, de cantandi modulatione, terrestris quoque belli et navalis proelii, perpetiendorumque suppliciorum certamina.

[1] The kinds of agones were: immensity of strength, swiftness for running, skill in archery, endurance of standing, the gestures of advancing to the cithara or the tibiae, also concerning morals, concerning form (beauty), concerning the modulation of singing, and contests of terrestrial war and naval battle, and of torments to be endured.

XXVII. DE LVDIS CIRCENSIBVS.

27. ON THE CIRCENSIAN GAMES.

[1] Ludi Circenses sacrorum causa ac deorum gentilium celebrationibus instituti sunt: unde et qui eos spectant daemonum cultibus inservire videntur. Nam res equestris antea simplex agebatur, et utique communis usus reatus non erat; sed quum ad ludos coactus est naturalis usus, ad daemoniorum cultum translatus est.

[1] The Circensian Games were instituted for the sake of sacred rites and the celebrations of the gentile gods: whence also those who watch them seem to be serving the cults of demons. For the equestrian affair was formerly conducted in simple fashion, and certainly the common use was not under guilt; but when natural use was forced into games, it was transferred to the cult of demons.

[2] Itaque Castori et Polluci deputantur haec species, quibus equos a Mercurio distributos historiae docent; sed et Neptunus equestris ludi est, quem Graeci IPPION appellant; sed et Martis et Iovis in ludis equi sunt consecrati, et ipsi quadrigis praesunt.

[2] Accordingly, these forms are assigned to Castor and Pollux, to whom the histories teach that horses were distributed by Mercury; but Neptune too pertains to the equestrian game, which the Greeks call HIPPION; and to Mars and to Jove likewise in the games horses are consecrated, and they themselves preside over the quadrigae.

[3] Circenses autem ludi ideo dicti, vel a circumeundo, vel quod, ubi nunc metae sunt, olim gladii ponebantur quos quadrigae circumibant; et inde dicti Circenses, ab ensibus circa quos currebant. Siquidem et in litore circa ripas fluminum currus agitantes, gladios in ordine in ripae litore ponebant, et erat artis equum circa pericula torquere. Inde et Circenses dicti putantur, quasi circum enses.

[3] But the games called Circenses are so named either from going-around, or because, where now the turning-posts (metae) are, once swords were set which the quadrigae went around; and from that they are called Circenses, from the swords around which they ran. For indeed, even on the shore along the banks of rivers, while driving chariots, they used to place swords in order on the shore of the bank, and it was an art to twist the horse around the dangers. Hence too they are thought to be called Circenses, as if “around-swords.”

XXVIII. DE CIRCO.

28. ON THE CIRCUS.

[1] Circus Soli principaliter consecratus est a paganis, cuius aedis medio spatio et effigies de fastigio aedis emicat, quod non putaverint sub tecto consecrandum quem in aperto habent. Est autem circus omne illud spatium quod circuire equi solent.

[1] The Circus was principally consecrated to Sol by the pagans, whose temple stands in the middle space, and whose effigy flashes forth from the pediment of the temple, because they did not think that he should be consecrated under a roof, whom they hold in the open. Now a circus is all that space which horses are accustomed to go around.

[2] Hunc Romani dictum putant a circuitu equorum, eo quod ibi circum metas equi currant. Graeci vero a Circe Solis filia, quae patri suo hoc genus certaminis instituit, adserunt nuncupatum, et ab ea circi appellationem argumentantur. Fuit autem maga et venefica et sacerdos daemonum, in cuius habitu et opera magicae artis et cultus idolatriae recognoscitur.

[2] The Romans think this to be called from the circuit of the horses, because there the horses run around the turning-posts. The Greeks, however, assert it is named from Circe, daughter of the Sun, who instituted for her father this kind of contest, and from her they argue the appellation of the circus. She was, moreover, a mage and a poisoner and a priestess of demons, in whose habit and works the magical art and the cult of idolatry is recognized.

XXIX. DE ORNAMENTIS.

29. ON ORNAMENTS.

[1] Ornamenta circi: ova, meta, oboliscus, carcer. Ova honori Pollucis et Castoris adscribunt, qui illos ovo editos credendo de cygno Iove non erubescunt.

[1] Ornaments of the circus: eggs, the meta, the obelisk, the carcer. They ascribe the eggs to the honor of Pollux and Castor, who, in believing them hatched from an egg, do not blush at Jove as a swan.

[2] Fingunt autem Circensia Romani ad causas mundi referre, ut sub hac specie superstitiones vanitatum suarum excusent.

[2] But the Romans feign that the Circensian Games refer to the causes of the world, so that under this guise they may excuse the superstitions of their vanities.

XXX. DE METIS.

30. ON THE METAE.

[1] Metarum quippe appellatione proprie terminum ac finem mundi designare volunt, ab eo quod aliqui emensus finis est, sive ad testimonium orientis occidentisque solis.

[1] By the appellation of the metae they wish properly to designate the terminus and end of the world, from the fact that for one who has traversed it the end has been reached, or as a testimony to the sun’s Orient and Occident.

XXXI. DE OBELISCO.

31. ON THE OBELISK.

[1] Oboliscum Mesfres rex Aegypti primus fecisse refertur tali ex causa. Quum quodam tempore Nilus violenti inundatione Aegyptum nocuisset, indignatus rex tamquam poenas a flumine exigeret, sagittam in undas misit. Non multum post gravi valitudine correptus lumen amisit, qui post caecitatem visu recepto duos oboliscos Soli sacravit.

[1] It is reported that King Mesfres of Egypt was the first to make an obelisk for such a reason: when at a certain time the Nile had harmed Egypt with a violent inundation, the king, indignant, as though he were exacting penalties from the river, shot an arrow into the waves. Not long after, seized by a grave illness, he lost his sight; and after his blindness, with vision recovered, he consecrated two obelisks to the Sun.

Oboliscus enim sagitta dicitur, qui ideo in medio Circo ponitur quia per medium mundum sol currit.

For the obelisk is called an arrow, and for that reason it is placed in the middle of the Circus, because the sun runs through the middle of the world.

[2] Medio autem spatio ab utraque meta constitutus oboliscus fastigium summitatemque caeli significat, quum sol ab utroque spatio medio horarum discrimine transcendit. Summo obolisco superpositum est quoddam auratum in modum flammae formatum, quoniam sol plurimum in se caloris atque ignis habet.

[2] The obelisk, set at the middle interval between each turning-post, signifies the peak and the summit of the sky, since the sun from either quarter crosses the middle by the division of the hours. At the very top of the obelisk there is placed something golden, fashioned in the form of a flame, because the sun contains very much heat and fire in itself.

XXXII. DE CARCERIBVS.

32. ON PRISONS.

[1] In Circo unde emittuntur equi carceres dicuntur, ab ea re qua et ille carcer qui est in civitate; quod, ut ibi homines damnati atque inclusi, ita hic equi cohercentur, ne exeant antequam signum emittant.

[1] In the Circus the places whence the horses are sent out are called carceres, from the same notion as that carcer which is in the city; because, as there condemned men and enclosed are constrained, so here the horses are restrained, lest they go out before they emit the signal.

XXXIII. DE AVRIGIS.

33. ON CHARIOTEERS.

[1] Ars Circi: auriga et cursus, equites vel pedites. Auriga proprie dictus quod currum agat et regat, sive quod feriat iunctos equos. Nam aurit, ferit; ut (Virg.

[1] Art of the Circus: the charioteer and the course, horsemen or footmen. The charioteer is properly so called because he drives and rules the chariot, or because he strikes the yoked horses. For he aurit, he strikes; as (Virg.

Aen. 10,314):

Aeneid 10,314):

Latus aurit apertum.

He strikes the open flank.

[2] Ipse est et agitator, id est verberator, ab agendo dictus. Aurigae autem duobus coloribus sunt, quibus speciem idolatriae vestiunt. Nam prasinus terrae, venetus caelo et mari a paganis dicatus est.

[2] He himself is also a driver, that is, a whipper, so named from agere, “to drive.” Moreover, the charioteers are of two colors, with which they clothe a show of idolatry. For the green is dedicated by the pagans to the earth, and the blue to the sky and the sea.

XXXIV. DE QVADRIGIS.

34. ON QUADRIGAE.

[1] Erict(h)onius autem, qui regnavit Athenis, primus quattuor equos iuncxisse fertur; sicut Vergilius auctor est dicens (Georg. 3,113):

[1] But Ericthonius, who reigned at Athens, is said to have first yoked four horses; just as Vergil is an authority, saying (Georgics 3, 113):

Primus Erict(h)onius currus et quattuor ausus
Iungere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor.

Erict(h)onius was the first to dare to yoke four horses to a chariot,
and, as victor, to stand upon the rapid wheels.

[2] Fuit autem Minervae et Vulcani filius de caduca in terram libidine, ut fabulae ferunt, procreatus, portentum daemonicum, immo diabolus, qui primus Iunoni currum dedicavit. Tali auctore quadrigae productae sunt.

[2] He was, moreover, the son of Minerva and Vulcan, begotten, as the fables relate, from lust fallen down upon the earth—a daemonic portent, nay rather a devil—who first dedicated a chariot to Juno. With such an originator, the four-horse chariots were brought forth.

XXXV. DE CVRRV.

35. ON THE CHARIOT.

[1] Currus autem a cursu dictus, vel quia rotas habere videtur [multas]; unde et carrum quasi currum. Quadrigarum vero currus duplici olim temone erant perpetuoque et qui omnibus equis iniceretur iugo.

[1] The chariot (currus) is said to be from cursus “course,” or because it seems to have [many] wheels; whence also car (carrum), as if currum. But the chariots of four-horse teams had formerly a double pole: a permanent one, and another which was laid on as a yoke upon all the horses.

[2] Primus Clisthenes Sicyonius tantum medios iugavit, eisque singulos ex utraque parte simplici vinculo adplicavit, quos Graeci SEIRAFOROUS, Latini funarios vocant, a genere vinculi, quo prius alligabantur.

[2] Cleisthenes the Sicyonian was the first to yoke only the middle ones, and to these he attached the single ones on either side with a simple bond, whom the Greeks call SEIRAFOROUS, the Latins call funarios, from the kind of bond by which they were formerly bound.

XXXVI. DE EQVIS QVIBVS CVRRIMVS.

36. ON THE HORSES WITH WHICH WE DRIVE.

[1] Quadrigae et bigae, et trigae et seiugae a numero equorum et iugo dicti. Ex quibus quadrigas soli, bigas lunae, trigas inferis, seiugas Iovi, desultores Lucifero et Hespero sacraverunt. Quadrigam ideo soli iungunt quia per quattuor tempora annus vertitur: vere, aestate, autumno et hieme.

[1] Quadrigae and bigae, and trigae and seiugae are so called from the number of horses and the yoke. Of these they consecrated the quadriga to the Sun, the biga to the Moon, the triga to the infernal powers, the seiuga to Jupiter, and the desultors to Lucifer and Hesperus. They yoke the quadriga to the Sun for this reason, because through four seasons the year is turned: spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

[2] Bigas lunae, quoniam gemino cursu cum sole contendit, sive quia et nocte et die videtur. Iungunt enim unum equum nigrum, alterum candidum. Trigas diis inferis, quia is per tres aetates homines ad se rapit: id est per infantiam, iuventutem atque senectam.

[2] The bigae to the Moon, since in a twin course she contends with the Sun, or because she is seen both by night and by day. For they yoke one horse black, the other white. The trigae to the infernal gods, because he draws humans to himself through three ages: that is, through infancy, youth, and old age.

Seiuga maximus currus currit Iovi, propter quod maximum deorum suorum eum esse credunt.

The six-yoke, the greatest chariot, runs for Jove, on account of which they believe him to be the greatest of their gods.

[3] Ideo autem rotis quadrigas currere dicunt, sive quia mundus iste circuli sui celeritate transcurrit, sive propter solem, quia volubili ambitu rotat; sicut ait Ennius (Ann. 558):

[3] For this reason, moreover, they say that the four-horse chariots run on wheels, either because this world runs through with the celerity of its own circle, or on account of the sun, because it rotates with a voluble ambit; just as Ennius says (Ann. 558):

Inde patefecit radiis rota candida caelum.

Then the bright wheel laid open the sky with its rays.

XXXVII. DE SEPTEM SPATIIS.

37. ON THE SEVEN SPACES.

[1] Septem spatia quadrigae currunt referentes hoc ad cursum septem stellarum, quibus mundum regi dicunt, sive ad cursum septem dierum praesentium, quibus peractis vitae terminus consummatur; quorum finis est creta, id est iudicium.

[1] Seven four-horse chariots run, referring this to the course of the seven stars, by which they say the world is ruled, or to the course of the seven present days, with the completion of which life’s terminus is consummated; whose end is the chalk, that is, judgment.

XXXVIII. DE EQVITIBVS.

38. ON THE HORSEMEN.

[1] Porro equites singulares ideo currere dicunt quia singulariter unusquisque cursum vitae huius peragit atque transit, alius alio tempore sequens alium, per unam tamen viam mortalitatis usque ad propriam metam mortis.

[1] Moreover, they say the singular horsemen run for this reason: because singularly each one completes and passes through the course of this life, one following another at a different time, yet by one road of mortality up to his own turning-post of death.

XXXIX. DE DESVLTORIBVS.

39. ON THE DESULTORS.

[1] Desultores nominati quod olim, prout quisque ad finem cursus venerat, desiliebat et currebat; sive quod de equo in equum transiliebat.

[1] Desultors are so named because formerly, as each one came to the end of the course, he would leap down and run; or because he would leap from horse to horse.

XL. DE PEDITIBVS.

40. ON THE FOOT-SOLDIERS.

[1] Pedites autem aiunt propterea pede currere quia pedibus curritur mortalitati. Ob hoc a superiori parte currunt ad inferiora, id est ab oriente ad occidentem, quia mortales oriuntur et occidunt. Nudi currunt, quia et homini in saeculo nullae reliquiae sunt.

[1] But the Footmen, they say, for this reason run on foot: because by the feet one runs toward mortality. On this account they run from the higher part to the lower, that is, from east to west, because mortals rise and set. They run naked, because for man in this age (saeculum) there are no relics.

Recto spatio currunt, quia inter vitam et mortem nihil distat. Sed haec igitur propterea fingunt ut vanitates suas et sacrilegia excusare conentur.

They run in a straight course, because between life and death there is no distance. But therefore they feign these things for this reason, in order that they may attempt to excuse their vanities and sacrileges.

XLI. DE COLORIBVS EQVORVM.

41. ON THE COLORS OF HORSES.

[1] Circa causas quoque elementorum idem gentiles etiam colores equorum iunxerunt, russeos enim soli, id est igni, albos aeri, prasinos terrae, venetos mari adsimilantes. Item russeos aestati currere voluerunt, quod ignei coloris sint, et cuncta tunc flavescant. Albos hiemi, quod sit glacialis, et frigoribus universa canescant.

[1] Concerning the causes of the elements as well, the same pagans even yoked the colors of horses, for they likened the russets to the sun, that is, to fire; the whites to air; the greens to earth; the blues to the sea. Likewise they wished the russets to run for summer, because they are of a fiery color, and then all things turn golden; the whites for winter, because it is icy, and in cold all things turn hoary.

Veri prasinos viridi colore, quia tunc pampinus densatur.

For spring, the Prasini (Greens) in virid color, because then the vine-leaf grows dense.

[2] Item russeos currere Marti sacraverunt, a quo Romani exoriuntur, et quia vexilla Romanorum cocco decorantur; sive quod Mars gaudet sanguine. Albos zephyris et serenis tempestatibus, prasinos floribus et terrae, venetos aquis vel aeri, quia caeruleo sunt colore, luteos, id est croceos, igni et soli, purpureos Iri sacraverunt, quam arcum dicimus, quod is plurimos colores habeat.

[2] Likewise they consecrated the Reds to run to Mars, from whom the Romans originate, and because the standards of the Romans are adorned with scarlet; or because Mars rejoices in blood. The Whites to the zephyrs and to serene weather; the Greens to flowers and to the earth; the Blues to the waters or to the air, because they are of cerulean color; the Yellows, that is saffron-colored, to fire and to the sun; they consecrated the Purples to Iris, which we call the bow, because it has very many colors.

[3] Sicque, dum hac spectatione deorum cultibus atque elementis mundialibus profanantur, eosdem deos atque eadem elementa proculdubio colere noscuntur. Vnde animadvertere debes, Christiane, quod Circum numina inmunda possideant. Quapropter alienus erit tibi locus quem plurimi Satanae spiritus occupaverunt: totum enim illum diabolus et angeli eius repleverunt.

[3] And thus, while by this spectacle they are profaned by the cults of the gods and the worldly elements, they are known without doubt to worship those same gods and those same elements. Whence you ought to take note, Christian, that unclean numina possess the Circus. Wherefore that place will be alien to you, which very many spirits of Satan have occupied: for the devil and his angels have filled that whole place.

XLII. DE THEATRO.

42. ON THE THEATER.

[1] Theatrum est quo scena includitur, semicirculi figuram habens, in quo stantes omnes inspiciunt. Cuius forma primum rotunda erat, sicut et amphitheatri; postea ex medio amphitheatro theatrum factum est. Theatrum autem ab spectaculo nominatum, APO TES THEORIAS, quod in eo populus stans desuper atque spectans ludos contemplaretur.

[1] The theater is that in which the scene is enclosed, having the figure of a semicircle, in which, standing, all look on. Its form was at first round, just as that of the amphitheater; afterwards, out of the middle of the amphitheater a theater was made. The theater, moreover, is named from the spectacle, APO TES THEORIAS, because in it the people, standing above and watching, would contemplate the games.

[2] Idem vero theatrum, idem et prostibulum, eo quod post ludos exactos meretrices ibi prostrarentur. Idem et lupanar vocatum ab eisdem meretricibus, quae propter vulgati corporis levitatem lupae nuncupabantur: nam lupae meretrices sunt a rapacitate vocatae, quod ad se rapiant miseros et adprehendant. Lupanaria enim a paganis constituta sunt ut pudor mulierum infelicium ibi publicaretur, et ludibrio haberentur tam hi qui facerent quam qui paterentur.

[2] The same, indeed, the theater, is likewise a “prostibulum,” because after the games were finished prostitutes would be prostrated there. It is also called a “lupanar” from those same meretrices, who, on account of the levity of a body made public, were called she‑wolves: for “she‑wolves” are meretrices named from rapacity, because they snatch the wretched to themselves and seize them. For lupanaria were established by pagans so that the shame of unfortunate women might be made public there, and both those who did these things and those who endured them were held up to mockery.

XLIII. DE SCENA.

43. ON THE SCENE.

[1] Scena autem erat locus infra theatrum in modum domus instructa cum pulpito, qui pulpitus orchestra vocabatur; ubi cantabant comici, tragici, atque saltabant histriones et mimi. Dicta autem scena Graeca appellatione, eo quod in speciem domus erat instructa. Vnde et apud Hebraeos tabernaculorum dedicatio a similitudine domiciliorum SKENOPEGIA appellabantur.

[1] The scene, moreover, was a place beneath the theater, constructed in the manner of a house, with a platform, which platform was called the orchestra; where comedians and tragedians sang, and actors and mimes danced. And it was called a scene by a Greek appellation, because it was constructed in the appearance of a house. Whence also among the Hebrews the dedication of tabernacles, from the likeness of dwellings, was called SKENOPEGIA.

XLIV. DE ORCHESTRA.

44. ON THE ORCHESTRA.

[1] Orchestra autem pulpitus erat scenae, ubi saltator agere posset, aut duo inter se disputare. Ibi enim poetae comoedi et tragoedi ad certamen conscendebant, hisque canentibus alii gestus edebant. Officia scenica: tragoedi, comoedi, thymelici, histriones, mimi et saltatores.

[1] The orchestra, moreover, was the platform of the stage, where a dancer could act, or two could dispute with each other. For there the comic and tragic poets would mount to the contest, and while they sang others put forth gestures. Stage offices: tragedians, comedians, thymelic performers, actors, mimes, and dancers.

XLV. DE TRAGOEDIS.

45. ON TRAGEDIANS.

[1] Tragoedi sunt qui antiqua gesta atque facinora sceleratorum regum luctuosa carmine spectante populo concinebant.

[1] Tragedians are those who, in mournful song, used to sing together the ancient deeds and crimes of wicked kings, with the people spectating.

XLVI. DE COMOEDIS.

46. ON COMEDIANS.

[1] Comoedi sunt qui privatorum hominum acta dictis aut gestu cantabant, atque stupra virginum et amores meretricum in suis fabulis exprimebant.

[1] Comedians are those who sang of the acts of private men by words or by gesture, and in their plays expressed the defilements of maidens and the loves of prostitutes.

XLVII. DE THYMELICIS.

47. ON THYMELICI.

[1] Thymelici autem erant musici scenici qui in organis et lyris et citharis praecanebant. Et dicti thymelici quod olim in orchestra stantes cantabant super pulpitum, quod thymele vocabatur.

[1] The thymelici, moreover, were scenic musicians who pre-chanted on organs and lyres and citharas. And they were called thymelici because formerly, standing in the orchestra, they sang upon the pulpit, which was called the thymele.

XLVIII. DE HISTRIONIBVS.

48. ON HISTRIONS.

[1] (H)istriones sunt qui muliebri indumento gestus inpudicarum feminarum exprimebant; hi autem saltando etiam historias et res gestas demonstrabant. Dicti autem histriones sive quod ab Histria id genus sit adductum, sive quod perplexas historiis fabulas exprimerent, quasi historiones.

[1] (H)istrions are those who, in women’s attire, represented the gestures of immodest women; and these, by dancing, also displayed histories and deeds performed. They are called histrions either because that kind was brought from Histria, or because they expressed fables intertwined with histories, as if “historions.”

XLIX. DE MIMIS.

49. ON MIMES.

[1] Mimi sunt dicti Graeca appellatione quod rerum humanarum sint imitatores; nam habebant suum auctorem, qui antequam mimum agerent, fabulam pronuntiare[n]t. Nam fabulae ita conponebantur a poetis ut aptissimae essent motui corporis.

[1] Mimes are called by a Greek appellation because they are imitators of human affairs; for they had their own author, who, before they performed the mime, would pronounce the fable. For the fables were composed thus by the poets so that they might be most apt to the movement of the body.

L. DE SALTATORIBVS.

50. ON DANCERS.

[1] Saltatores autem nominatos Varro dicit ab Arcade Salio, quem Aeneas in Italiam secum adduxit, quique primo docuit Romanos adolescentes nobiles saltare.

[1] Varro says that the dancers were named from the Arcadian Salius, whom Aeneas brought with him into Italy, and who first taught Roman noble adolescents to dance.

LI. QVID QVO PATRONO AGATVR.

51. WHAT IS TO BE DONE WITH WHICH PATRON.

[1] Et est plane in artibus scenicis Liberi et Veneris patrocinium, quae privata et propria sunt scenae, de gestu et corporis fluxu. Nam mollitiam Libero et Veneri inmolabant, illi per sexum, illi per luxum dissoluti: quae vero ibi vocibus et modis et organis et lyris transiguntur, Apollines et Musas et Minervas et Mercurios patronos habent. Quod spectaculum, Christiane, odere debes, quorum odisti auctores.

[1] And plainly in the scenic arts there is the patronage of Liber and Venus, which are the stage’s private and proper things, concerning gesture and the body’s flux. For they immolated softness to Liber and to Venus, dissolved—this one by sex, that one by luxury; but the things there that are effected by voices and modes and organs and lyres have Apollos and Muses and Minervas and Mercuries as patrons. That spectacle, O Christian, you ought to hate, whose authors you have hated.

LII. DE AMPHITHEATRO.

LII. ON THE AMPHITHEATER.

[1] Amphitheatrum locus est spectaculi, ubi pugnant gladiatores. Et inde ludum gladiatorium dictum quod in eo iuvenes usum armorum diverso motu condiscant, et modo inter se aut gladiis aut pugnis certantes, modo contra bestias incedentes; ubi non odio, sed praemio inlecti subeunt ferale certamen.

[1] The amphitheatre is a place of spectacle, where gladiators fight. And from that the gladiatorial game is so called because in it youths learn the use of arms with diverse motion, now contending among themselves either with swords or with fists, now advancing against beasts; where, enticed not by hatred but by reward, they undergo a deadly contest.

[2] Amphitheatrum dictum, quod ex duobus theatris sit factum. Nam amphitheatrum rotundum est; theatrum vero ex medio amphitheatro est, semicirculi figuram habens.

[2] It is called an amphitheater because it is made from two theaters. For the amphitheater is round; whereas the theater is from a half amphitheater, having the figure of a semicircle.

LIII. DE LVDO EQVESTRI.

53. ON THE EQUESTRIAN GAME.

[1] Genera gladiatorum plura, quorum primus ludus equestrium. Duo enim equites praecedentibus prius signis militaribus, unus a parte orientis, alter ab occidentis procedebant in equis albis cum aureis galeis minoribus et habilioribus armis; sicque atroci perseverantia pro virtute sua iniebant pugnam, dimicantes quousque alter in alterius morte prosiliret, ut haberet qui caderet casum, gloriam qui perimeret. Quae armatura pugnabat Martis Duellii causa.

[1] There are several kinds of gladiators, of which the first is the game of the Equestrians. For two equites, with the military standards going before them first, one from the eastern side, the other from the western, advanced on white horses with golden helmets and with smaller and more handy arms; and thus, with atrocious perseverance for their valor, they entered the fight, contending until one would spring to the death of the other, so that he who fell might have the fall, and he who slew might have the glory. This armature fought for the sake of Mars Duellius.

LIV. DE RETIARIIS.

54. ON THE RETIARII.

[1] Retiarius ab armaturae genere. In gladiatorio ludo contra alterum pugnantem ferebat occulte rete, quod iaculum appellatur, ut adversarium cuspide insistente operiret, inplicitumque viribus superaret. Quae armatura pugnabat Neptuno tridentis causa.

[1] The Retiarius is from the kind of armature. In the gladiatorial game, fighting against another, he secretly carried a net, which is called an iaculum, so that, with the point set, he might cover the adversary, and, once entangled, might overcome him by strength. This armature fought for Neptune on account of the trident.

LV. DE SECVTORIBVS.

55. ON THE SECUTORES.

[1] Secutor ab insequendo retiarium dictus. Gestabat enim cuspidem et massam plumbeam, quae adversarii iaculum inpediret, ut antequam ille feriret rete, iste exsuperaret. Haec armatura sacrata erat Vulcano.

[1] The Secutor is so called from “pursuing” the retiarius. For he carried a spear-point and a leaden mass, which would hinder the adversary’s throwing-net, so that before that man could cast the net, this one might get the upper hand. This armature was consecrated to Vulcan.

Ignis enim semper insequitur, ideoque cum retiario componebatur, quia ignis et aqua semper inter se inimica sunt.

For fire always pursues, and therefore it was matched with the retiarius, because fire and water are always mutually inimical.

LVI. DE LAQVEARIIS.

56. ON COFFERED CEILINGS.

[1] Laqueariorum pugna erat fugientes in ludo homines iniecto laqueo inpeditos consecutosque prostrare amictos umbone pellicio.

[1] The contest of the laquearii was to prostrate men fleeing in the show, once a noose had been cast on them and they were impeded and overtaken, the fighters being wrapped with a hide-covered umbo.

LVII. DE VELITIBVS.

57. ON THE VELITES.

[1] Velitum pugna erat ut ultro citroque tela obiectarent. Erat enim eorum varia pugna et spectantibus gratior quam reliqua: velites autem nuncupatos sive a volitatione, sive a civitate Etruscorum quae Veles vocabatur.

[1] The combat of the velites was to hurl missiles to and fro. For their fighting was varied and more pleasing to spectators than the rest: moreover, they were named velites either from volitation, or from the Etruscan city which was called Veles.

LVIII. DE FERALI CERTAMINE.

58. ON THE FUNEREAL CONTEST.

[1] Ferarum pugna erat emissas bestias iuvenes excipere, pugnare adversus eas, ultroneo funere certare, non crimine, sed furore.

[1] It was a feral contest: the released beasts the youths were to meet, to fight against them, to contend in a voluntary funeral (death), not by crime, but by fury.

LIX. DE HORVM EXERCITATIONE LVDORVM.

59. ON THE EXERCITATION OF THESE GAMES.

[1] Haec quippe spectacula crudelitatis et inspectio vanitatum non solum hominum vitiis, sed et daemonum iussis instituta sunt. Proinde nihil esse debet Christiano cum Circensi insania, cum inpudicitia theatri, cum amphitheatri crudelitate, cum atrocitate arenae, cum luxuria ludi. Deum enim negat qui talia praesumit, fidei Christianae praevaricator effectus, qui id denuo appetit quod in lavacro iam pridem renuntiavit; id est diabolo, pompis et operibus eius.

[1] For these spectacles of cruelty and the inspection of vanities have been instituted not only by the vices of men, but also by the commands of demons. Accordingly, there ought to be nothing for a Christian with the circus insanity, with the immodesty of the theater, with the cruelty of the amphitheater, with the atrocity of the arena, with the luxury of the games. For he denies God who presumes such things, having become a prevaricator of the Christian faith, who once again seeks what in the laver he long ago renounced; that is, the devil, his pomps and his works.

LX. DE TABVLA.

60. ON THE BOARD.

[1] Alea, id est lusus tabulae, inventa a Graecis in otio Troiani belli a quodam milite Alea nomine, a quo et ars nomen accepit. Tabula luditur pyrgo, calculis tesserisque.

[1] Alea, that is, the game of the board, was invented by the Greeks in the leisure of the Trojan War by a certain soldier named Alea, from whom the art also received its name. The board is played with a tower, with counters and with dice.

LXI. DE PYRG1S.

61. ON DICE-TOWERS.

[1] Pyrgus dictus quod per eum tesserae pergant, sive quod turris speciem habeat. Nam Graeci turrem PURGON vocant.

[1] Pyrgus is so called because through it the dice proceed, or because it has the appearance of a tower. For the Greeks call a tower PURGON.

LXII. DE CALCVLIS.

62. ON CALCULI.

[1] Calculi vocati quod lenes sint et rotundi. Vnde et calculus dicitur lapis brevis, qui sine molestia sui brevitate calcatur. Item calculi, quod per vias ordinales eant, quasi per calles.

[1] Calculi are so called because they are smooth and rotund. Whence also a calculus is called a short stone, which, by its shortness, is trodden without annoyance. Likewise “calculi,” because they go along ordinal ways, as if along “calles” (paths).

LXIII. DE TESSERIS.

63. ON TESSERAE.

[1] Tesserae vocatae quia quadrae sunt ex omnibus partibus. Has alii lepusculos vocant, eo quod exiliendo discurrant. Olim autem tesserae iacula appellabantur, a iaciendo.

[1] They are called tesserae because they are squared on all sides. Others call them little hares, for the reason that by leaping they run about. Formerly, however, tesserae were called javelins, from throwing.

LXIV. DE FIGVRIS ALEAE.

64. ON THE FIGURES OF THE DIE.

[1] Quidam autem aleatores sibi videntur physiologice per allegoriam hanc artem exercere, et sub quadam rerum similitudine fingere. Nam tribus tesseris ludere perhibent propter tria saeculi tempora: praesentia, praeterita, futura; quia non stant, sed decurrunt. Sed et ipsas vias senariis locis distinctas propter aetates hominum ternariis lineis propter tempora argumentantur.

[1] Certain aleators, moreover, seem to themselves to exercise this art physiologically through allegory, and to fashion it under a certain similitude of things. For they assert that playing with three tesserae is on account of the three times of the world: present, past, future; because they do not stand, but run on. But they also argue that the ways themselves, distinguished by senary places, are on account of the ages of men, and the ternary lines on account of the times.

Inde et tabulam ternis discriptam dicunt lineis.

Hence they also say the board is marked off with three lines.

LXV. DE VOCABVLIS TESSERARVM.

LX5. ON THE VOCABLES OF THE TESSERAE.

[1] Iactus quisque apud lusores veteres a numero vocabatur, ut unio, [binio,] trinio, quaternio, [quinio], senio. Postea appellatio singulorum mutata est, et unionem canem, trinionem suppum, quaternionem planum vocabant.

[1] Each throw among the ancient players was called from the number, such as unio, [binio,] trinio, quaternio, [quinio], senio. Afterwards the appellation of the individual ones was changed, and they called the unio “dog,” the trinio “supine,” the quaternio “flat.”

LXVI. DE IACTV TESSERARVM.

66. ON THE THROW OF THE DICE.

[1] Iactus tesserarum ita a peritis aleatoribus conponitur ut adferat quod voluerit, utputa senionem, qui eis in iactu bonum adfert. Vitant autem canem quia damnosus est; unum enim significat.

[1] The throw of the dice is thus composed by expert gamblers so that it may bring what he has wished, for instance a senio (a six), which brings them good in the cast. They avoid, however, the dog, because it is ruinous; for it signifies a one.

LXVII. DE CALCVLORVM MOTV.

67. ON THE MOTION OF COUNTERS.

[1] Calculi partim ordine moventur, partim vage: ideo alios ordinarios, alios vagos appellant; at vero qui moveri omnino non possunt, incitos dicunt. Vnde et egentes homines inciti vocantur, quibus spes ultra procedendi nulla restat.

[1] Counters are moved partly in order, partly vagrantly: therefore they call some regular, others vagrant; but indeed those which cannot be moved at all they call inciti. Whence also needy men are called inciti, for whom no hope of proceeding further remains.

LXVIII. DE INTERDICTIONE ALEAE.

68. ON THE INTERDICTION OF GAMBLING.

[1] Ab hac arte fraus et mendacium atque periurium numquam abest, postremo et odium et damna rerum; unde et aliquando propter haec scelera interdicta legibus fuit.

[1] From this art, fraud and mendacity and perjury are never absent, finally both odium and losses of property; whence also at times, on account of these crimes, it was interdicted by laws.

LXIX. DE PILA.

69. ON THE BALL.

[1] Pila proprie dicitur quod sit pilis plena. Haec et sfera a ferendo vel feriendo dicta. De quarum genere et pondere Dorcatius sic tradit (1): Neu tu parce pilos vivacis condere cervi, Vncia donec erit geminam super addita libram.

[1] A ball is properly so called because it is full of hairs. This too is called a sphere from bearing or striking. Concerning their kind and weight Dorcatius thus hands down (1): Do not be sparing to pack in the hairs of the long‑lived stag, until, an ounce added over, it will be the double pound.

[2] Inter species pilarum sunt trigonaria et arenata. Trigonaria est qu[i]a inter tres luditur. Arenata, qua in grege, dum ex a circulo adstantium spectantiumque emissa, ultra iustum spatium pilam excipere lusumque inire consueverunt.

[2] Among the species of balls are the trigonaria and the arenata. The trigonaria is so called because it is played among three. The arenata, which is in a group, when, the ball having been sent out from the circle of those standing by and watching, they have been accustomed to catch the ball beyond the proper space and to enter the game.

Cubitalem lusum appellant quum duo comminus ex proximo ac pene coniunctis cubitis pilam feriunt. Suram dicitur dare qui pilam crure prolato feriendam conlusoribus praebent.

They call it the cubital game when two, at close quarters, from very near and with elbows almost conjoined, strike the ball. He is said to “give the sura” who, with the leg put forth, offers the ball to his fellow-players to be struck.